Why in News?

On 18 February 2026, India-UK Offshore Wind Taskforce Deepens Clean Energy Cooperation emerged as an important current-affairs theme through an official communication linked to Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. For UPSC aspirants, the topic is valuable not only because it marks a specific event, but because it opens a wider window into how policy, institutions, and development processes are evolving in India.

The official anchor for the topic is India–UK Offshore Wind Taskforce Launched; Shri Pralhad Joshi Calls It a ‘Trustforce’ for Accelerating Strategic Clean Energy Cooperation. That matters because serious preparation requires moving beyond headlines and asking three connected questions: what happened, why now, and what deeper historical, economic, political, or governance trend this event reflects.

UPSC Relevance

• Prelims: renewable-energy terms, climate cooperation mechanisms, institutions, and ecological concepts
• Mains: GS III on climate action, sustainability, energy transition, and environmental governance

What Happened?

Union Minister of New and Renewable Energy Shri Pralhad Joshi today addressed the launch of the India–UK Offshore Wind Taskforce in the presence of the Rt Hon Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Mr. David Lammy and British High Commissioner to India Ms.

Calling the Taskforce a “Trustforce,” Shri Joshi said it reflects the confidence that India and the United Kingdom can work together to address real execution challenges. He urged that the platform deliver time-bound workstreams, measurable milestones and visible progress, converting global lessons into solutions tailored to Indian conditions.

Read together, the event can be understood through three immediate takeaways: Union Minister of New and Renewable Energy Shri Pralhad Joshi today addressed the launch of the India–UK Offshore Wind Taskforce in the presence of the Rt Hon Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Mr., David Lammy and British High Commissioner to India Ms., and Calling the Taskforce a “Trustforce,” Shri Joshi said it reflects the confidence that India and the United Kingdom can work together to address real execution challenges.. These are the factual anchors, but the real UPSC value lies in connecting those facts with the broader story behind them.

Why it Matters

For UPSC, the significance of this topic lies in the fact that it sits at the intersection of current developments and structural change. Whether one looks at it from the lens of governance, economy, diplomacy, social policy, or strategic planning, the topic shows how day-to-day announcements often reveal larger shifts in India's state capacity and developmental priorities.

In answer writing, this makes the topic especially useful. It can serve as a factual illustration in Prelims preparation and as a layered example in Mains where the examiner expects candidates to connect institutions, outcomes, and wider policy direction.

Bottom Line

India-UK Offshore Wind Taskforce Deepens Clean Energy Cooperation is important because it allows aspirants to move from a narrow event-based reading of current affairs to a broader understanding of how history, institutions, economy, politics, and governance intersect in contemporary India.

Related Current Affairs

• NITI Aayog's Viksit Bharat and Net Zero Scenarios Add Long-Term Policy Perspective
• Standards for Green Ammonia and Green Methanol Gain Attention
• PM Surya Ghar Milestone Reflects the Growing Political Economy of Rooftop Solar

Exam Oriented Questions

Why in News?

On 18 February 2026, Lakhpati Didi Push Shows the Political Economy of Women's Self-Help Groups emerged as an important current-affairs theme through an official communication linked to Ministry of Rural Development. For UPSC aspirants, the topic is valuable not only because it marks a specific event, but because it opens a wider window into how policy, institutions, and development processes are evolving in India.

The official anchor for the topic is Union Minister Shri Shivraj Singh Chouhan issues instructions on war footing to achieve target of 6 crore ‘Lakhpati Didis’. That matters because serious preparation requires moving beyond headlines and asking three connected questions: what happened, why now, and what deeper historical, economic, political, or governance trend this event reflects.

UPSC Relevance

• Prelims: welfare programmes, social campaigns, education, employment, and target groups in policy
• Mains: GS II on social justice, education, livelihoods, and human development

What Happened?

Union Minister for Rural Development and Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare, Shri Shivraj Singh Chouhan on Wednesday chaired a review meeting of the Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY–NRLM) at Krishi Bhavan in New Delhi, where officials of the Ministry of Rural Development presented updates on the implementation and progress of the mission. During the meeting, the Union Minister sought a detailed briefing from senior officials of the Ministry on the latest progress of the scheme.

Expressing satisfaction over the overall performance of the mission, Shri Chouhan directed officials to formulate a special, focused strategy and work on a war footing to achieve the revised target of creating 6 crore ‘Lakhpati Didis’. The Union Minister underlined that achieving the ambitious goal of 6 crore ‘Lakhpati Didis’ would require connecting at least 10 crore women to the various financial inclusion initiatives of the Ministry of Rural Development.

Read together, the event can be understood through three immediate takeaways: Union Minister for Rural Development and Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare, Shri Shivraj Singh Chouhan on Wednesday chaired a review meeting of the Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY–NRLM) at Krishi Bhavan in New Delhi, where officials of the Ministry of Rural Development presented updates on the implementation and progress of the mission., During the meeting, the Union Minister sought a detailed briefing from senior officials of the Ministry on the latest progress of the scheme., and Expressing satisfaction over the overall performance of the mission, Shri Chouhan directed officials to formulate a special, focused strategy and work on a war footing to achieve the revised target of creating 6 crore ‘Lakhpati Didis’.. These are the factual anchors, but the real UPSC value lies in connecting those facts with the broader story behind them.

Why it Matters

For UPSC, the significance of this topic lies in the fact that it sits at the intersection of current developments and structural change. Whether one looks at it from the lens of governance, economy, diplomacy, social policy, or strategic planning, the topic shows how day-to-day announcements often reveal larger shifts in India's state capacity and developmental priorities.

In answer writing, this makes the topic especially useful. It can serve as a factual illustration in Prelims preparation and as a layered example in Mains where the examiner expects candidates to connect institutions, outcomes, and wider policy direction.

Bottom Line

Lakhpati Didi Push Shows the Political Economy of Women's Self-Help Groups is important because it allows aspirants to move from a narrow event-based reading of current affairs to a broader understanding of how history, institutions, economy, politics, and governance intersect in contemporary India.

Related Current Affairs

• Pariksha Pe Charcha 2026 Keeps Exam Stress and Student Well-Being in Focus
• Khelo India Mission Announced in Union Budget 2026-27
• One Health Workshop Reinforces Integrated Public Health Thinking

Exam Oriented Questions

Why in News?

On 18 February 2026, Municipal Bonds Dialogue Revives the Question of Urban Finance Reform emerged as an important current-affairs theme through an official communication linked to Press Information Bureau. For UPSC aspirants, the topic is valuable not only because it marks a specific event, but because it opens a wider window into how policy, institutions, and development processes are evolving in India.

The official anchor for the topic is MoHUA Organises Stakeholder Dialogue on Municipal Bonds to Strengthen Urban Financing. That matters because serious preparation requires moving beyond headlines and asking three connected questions: what happened, why now, and what deeper historical, economic, political, or governance trend this event reflects.

UPSC Relevance

• Prelims: budgets, sectors, institutions, reports, trade and investment measures, and growth-linked facts
• Mains: GS III on economic growth, industrial policy, public finance, and external sector issues

What Happened?

The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) today organised a high-level consultation titled “Municipal Bonds Unpacked – A Dialogue with the Intermediaries” to deliberate on strategies for deepening the municipal bond market and strengthening alternative sources of financing for Urban Local Bodies (ULBs). The session brought together senior officials from the Government of India, market regulators, credit rating agencies, transaction advisers and domain experts to exchange views on enhancing the ecosystem for municipal bond issuances and enabling cities to access capital markets in a sustainable and structured manner.

Secretary, MoHUA, Shri Srinivas Katikithala outlined the Government of India’s vision for empowering cities through innovative financing mechanisms and emphasised the importance of municipal bonds as a key instrument for supporting urban infrastructure development and improving service delivery. Thara presented the experience of municipal bond issuances by ULBs so far and highlighted the need for continued capacity building, improved financial management, and strengthening of institutional frameworks to enable more cities to tap the bond market.

Read together, the event can be understood through three immediate takeaways: The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) today organised a high-level consultation titled “Municipal Bonds Unpacked – A Dialogue with the Intermediaries” to deliberate on strategies for deepening the municipal bond market and strengthening alternative sources of financing for Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)., The session brought together senior officials from the Government of India, market regulators, credit rating agencies, transaction advisers and domain experts to exchange views on enhancing the ecosystem for municipal bond issuances and enabling cities to access capital markets in a sustainable and structured manner., and Secretary, MoHUA, Shri Srinivas Katikithala outlined the Government of India’s vision for empowering cities through innovative financing mechanisms and emphasised the importance of municipal bonds as a key instrument for supporting urban infrastructure development and improving service delivery.. These are the factual anchors, but the real UPSC value lies in connecting those facts with the broader story behind them.

Why it Matters

For UPSC, the significance of this topic lies in the fact that it sits at the intersection of current developments and structural change. Whether one looks at it from the lens of governance, economy, diplomacy, social policy, or strategic planning, the topic shows how day-to-day announcements often reveal larger shifts in India's state capacity and developmental priorities.

In answer writing, this makes the topic especially useful. It can serve as a factual illustration in Prelims preparation and as a layered example in Mains where the examiner expects candidates to connect institutions, outcomes, and wider policy direction.

Bottom Line

Municipal Bonds Dialogue Revives the Question of Urban Finance Reform is important because it allows aspirants to move from a narrow event-based reading of current affairs to a broader understanding of how history, institutions, economy, politics, and governance intersect in contemporary India.

Related Current Affairs

• Trade Watch Quarterly Offers a Fresh Snapshot of India's External Trade
• Union Budget 2026-27 Pushes a Services-Led Education-to-Employment Agenda
• PLI Support for Food Processing Reinforces Value Addition in Agriculture

Exam Oriented Questions

Why in News:

• The Government of India approved and announced its launch in February 2026.
• It was among the first policy decisions signed by the Prime Minister after moving to “Seva Teerth” (new PM office/residence).

UPSC Relevance: GS1 (Health), GS2 (Good Governance)

What is PM RAHAT?

PM RAHAT is a national scheme to ensure cashless emergency treatment for road accident victims up to Rs 1.5 lakh, with a coordinated digital and institutional response system.

 Aim: No accident victim should die due to lack of timely treatment or money.

Core Objectives

• Life-saving golden hour treatment
• Cashless hospital care
• Nationwide emergency response integration
• Assured hospital reimbursement
• Support for Good Samaritans

Key Features

1.  Integration with ERSS-112

Linked to the national emergency helpline 112 under the Emergency Response Support System (ERSS).

Process

• Victim / bystander calls 112
• System locates nearest empanelled hospital
• Ambulance dispatched
• Hospital alerted

2.  Universal Cashless Treatment

• Up to Rs 1.5 lakh per accident victim
• Applicable on all categories of roads
  • National highways
  • State highways
  • Rural roads
  • Urban roads

Note: It is not limited to highways (earlier schemes were).

3. Digital Platform Integration

PM RAHAT integrates two key platforms:

• Ministry of Road Transport and Highways eDAR
  • Electronic Detailed Accident Report
  • Accident data & liability details
• National Health Authority TMS 2.0
  • Hospital claims processing system

4.  Assured Payment to Hospitals

Reimbursement via Motor Vehicle Accident Fund (MVAF).

Payment sources

• If vehicle insured: Paid by General Insurance Companies (pool contribution)
• If uninsured / hit-and-run: Paid by Government of India budget

5.  Good Samaritan Support

Anyone helping victim can:

• Call 112
• Get victim treated cashlessly
• No financial burden

6. District-level Grievance System

• Complaints handled by District Road Safety Committee, Chaired by District Collector / DM
• Grievance officer appointed locally.

Why PM RAHAT is Important

Road Safety Crisis in India

• ~1.7 lakh road deaths/year
• Many deaths due to delayed treatment
• Hospitals refuse victims without payment assurance

PM RAHAT solves:

• Treatment delay
• Payment uncertainty
• Data fragmentation
• Emergency coordination gaps

Way Forward

• Strict digital audit mechanisms
• Standard trauma pricing norms
• Dedicated trauma centers in district hospitals
• Public awareness campaign
• Insurance compliance enforcement

Conclusion

PM RAHAT represents a shift from infrastructure-centric road safety policy to a human-centric survival model, operationalizing Article 21 in real-time emergency governance.

If effectively implemented, it can transform India’s trauma care ecosystem and significantly reduce preventable road fatalities.

Why in News:

A devastating accident occurred in an illegal rat-hole coal mine in East Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya, resulting in the deaths of at least 25 miners. The tragedy has exposed persistent dangers in unregulated coal extraction in the region — despite long-standing bans and legal interventions.

UPSC Relevance: GSII Governance, GSIII Environment and Ecology

What Is Rat-Hole Mining?

Rat-hole mining refers to a primitive form of coal extraction involving narrow, horizontal tunnels branching from small vertical shafts — often only 2–3 feet wide and less than 4 feet high. Workers crawl inside these tunnels to extract coal from thin seams in hilly terrain.

There are two main variants:

• Side-cutting mining – horizontal channels dug into hill slopes
• Box-cutting mining – a vertical “box” or opening drilled deep, with horizontal rat-holes branching out.

• Why in Meghalaya?
  • This method is used because Meghalaya’s coal seams (layers) are thin, making mechanized mining economically difficult.

Why Rathole Mining Continues?

1. Socio-Economic Dependence

• Rathole mining is a major source of income for thousands of local families.
• High poverty levels and a lack of alternative livelihoods force local populations to depend on mining for survival.

2. Governance and Regulatory Lapses

• Despite bans, illegal mining thrives because surveillance and enforcement are weak.
• Court-appointed panels have repeatedly flagged administrative and police inaction.

3. Legal and Constitutional Complexities

• Under the Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, tribal communities in Meghalaya have autonomous control over their land and minerals.
• This private ownership complicates the application of national mining and environmental laws.

4. High Market Demand

• There is a persistent demand for cheap coal from local industries and for trade with neighbouring countries like Bangladesh, which further incentivises illegal extraction

What are the Impacts of Rathole Mining?

1. Environmental Impacts

• Water Pollution (Acid Mine Drainage): Sulfur-bearing minerals in coal react with water and oxygen to create sulfuric acid, which leaches heavy metals (Iron, Manganese, Aluminium) into water bodies.
  • Dead Rivers: Major rivers like the Kopili, Lukha, and Myntdu have become too acidic to sustain aquatic life.
  • Infrastructure Damage: Acidic water is so corrosive that it destroyed turbines at the Kopili Hydroelectric Project.
• Land Degradation and Deforestation: Large-scale clearing of forests for mine access leads to topsoil erosion and renders land infertile. Unclosed mine pits cause land subsidence and structural damage to buildings.
• Air Pollution: It release fine particulate matter and toxic gases, severely impacting the health of local tribal communities. 

2. Health and Safety Hazards

• Fatal Accidents: The narrow, unscientific tunnels lack structural support and ventilation.
  • Flooding: Frequent flooding during the monsoon traps and kills miners, such as the 2018 Ksan disaster and a 2026 explosion
• Occupational Diseases: Prolonged exposure to coal dust without protective gear leads to “Black Lung” disease (Pneumoconiosis) and silicosis.
• Asphyxiation: Lack of oxygen and the presence of toxic gases like methane or carbon monoxide frequently cause suffocation in deep tunnels. 

3. Socio-Economic Impacts

• Child Labour: Due to the narrowness of the tunnels (3–4 feet high), children are often trafficked or employed because they can navigate the spaces more easily.
• Exploitation of Migrants: Most workers are vulnerable migrant labourers from Assam, Jharkhand, and Nepal who work without formal contracts or social security.
• Loss of Traditional Livelihoods: While mining provides “quick cash,” the resulting pollution has destroyed local agriculture and fisheries, forcing long-term economic dependence on illegal mining.
• Revenue Loss: Illegal operations bypass formal taxation, causing significant losses to the state exchequer

Actions taken against Rat-hole Mining:

National Green Tribunal (NGT) Ban (2014): The NGT officially banned rat-hole mining in 2014, citing it as “unscientific” and highlighting the severe environmental damage and frequent loss of lives.

Supreme Court Validation (2019): The Supreme Court of India upheld the ban in 2019, ruling that the practice violates the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957.

Justice BP Katakey Committee: Appointed by the Meghalaya High Court, this committee monitors illegal mining and has recently flagged widespread violations in districts like East Jaintia Hills.

• Assam’s Standard Operating Procedure (SOP): The Assam government recently evolved a Standard Operating Procedure to seal illegal rat-hole mines, resulting in the closure of over 245 sites so far.
• Surveillance Technology: Both Central and State governments are increasingly deploying drone surveillance and satellite imagery to detect illegal activity in remote areas.

Shift to Scientific Mining: The Meghalaya government is promoting “scientific mining” models that comply with safety and environmental standards, though these require consolidating small land holdings.

Alternative Livelihoods: To reduce dependency, the government is exploring schemes like MGNREGA and promoting alternative sectors such as pineapple cultivation and eco-tourism.

Financial Penalties: The Supreme Court previously ordered the Meghalaya government to deposit ₹100 crore with the Central Pollution Control Board for failing to curb illegal mining.

What should be done?

1. Stronger Enforcement

• Laws already exist: NGT ban (2014), Supreme Court orders, MMDR Act
• The real failure is implementation
• What is needed:
  • Regular inspections of mining areas
  • Use of satellite imagery, drones, GIS mapping to detect illegal mines
  • Accountability of district officials and police

 Stop illegal mining not on paper, but on the ground.

2. Livelihood Alternatives

• Many locals depend on coal mining because:
  • Limited industries
  • Remote terrain
  • Few job options
• If mining is stopped without alternatives, people will continue illegally

Possible alternatives:

• Skill development (construction, tourism, forestry)
• Agro-based livelihoods
• MGNREGA and local infrastructure projects
• Eco-tourism in Meghalaya

Don’t just ban — replace unsafe livelihoods with safer ones.

3. Technology Adoption

• Rat-hole mining exists because coal seams are thin
• But science-based small-scale mining technologies can still be developed

Examples:

• Controlled small-bore mining
• Better ventilation and support structures
• Use of safety equipment and sensors

Move from primitive to safe and scientific mining, where mining is unavoidable.

4. Community Engagement

• In Meghalaya, land is often community-owned (Sixth Schedule areas)
• Without involving local tribes, enforcement fails

What engagement means:

• Consulting village councils (Dorbars)
• Awareness about environmental and safety risks
• Community monitoring of illegal mines

Policies must work with communities, not against them.

5. Better Disaster Preparedness

• Accidents are frequent → floods, cave-ins, gas explosions
• Current response is slow and reactive

Needed:

• Trained mine rescue teams
• Early warning systems
• Emergency protocols
• Medical and disaster infrastructure in mining districts

Reduce deaths even if accidents occur.

Conclusion

The Meghalaya rat-hole mining tragedy highlights the urgent need for a holistic policy approach combining strict enforcement of mining laws, provision of alternative livelihoods, adoption of safe mining technologies, community participation, and robust disaster preparedness mechanisms to ensure sustainable development without compromising human lives.

Practice Mains Questions

1. Despite a ban by the National Green Tribunal in 2014, rathole mining continues in parts of Northeast India. Examine the reasons for continued illegal mining and suggest policy measures for effective enforcement.
   
2. You are a district magistrate in a coal-rich district where rathole mining provides livelihood to thousands but poses severe risks to workers and the environment.
   (a) Identify the ethical dilemmas involved.
   (b) Suggest a balanced course of action.

Practice MCQ:

Which of the following are major environmental impacts of rat-hole mining?

1. Acid mine drainage
2. Deforestation
3. Groundwater contamination

Select the correct answer using the code below:
a) 1 and 2 only
b)  2 and 3 only
c)  1 and 3 only
d)  1, 2 and 3

Answer: d)

Why in News:

Sodium-ion battery technology is in the news due to growing policy focus on alternative battery chemistries to reduce India’s dependence on lithium-ion batteries and strengthen energy security.

UPSC Relevance: GSIII Science and Technology

Why batteries are everywhere now

Batteries power everything from personal devices (phones, laptops, wearables) to EVs, power tools, grid-scale energy storage, and increasingly household appliances. This “battery saturation” makes energy storage essential for economic growth, energy security, and shifting to clean energy.

Lithium-ion dominance and its problems

Lithium-ion batteries lead globally thanks to:

• Store a lot of energy for their weight (high energy density)
• Last many charge cycles
• Lose little charge when idle
• Became much cheaper due to mass production

However, lithium-ion has structural issues:

• Relies on critical minerals (lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite).
• Supply is concentrated in a few countries (e.g., mining/refining often in China, Australia, etc.), creating risks of shortages, price swings, and geopolitical tensions.
• As demand surges (for EVs, storage), these vulnerabilities worsen.

India’s situation

India has pushed domestic manufacturing via the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme for Advanced Chemistry Cells (launched 2021). About 40–50 GWh capacity allocated, but progress is slow:

• Only ~1–2 GWh commissioned by late 2025 (mostly by Ola Electric, with others like Reliance delayed).
• Upstream supply chain (raw materials, processing, cathodes/anodes/separators) is underdeveloped.
• India has limited viable lithium reserves and heavy import dependence.

This makes diversification urgent—hence the focus on alternatives like sodium-ion.

Sodium-ion batteries: Key advantages

Sodium-ion batteries replace lithium with sodium (abundant, cheap, from sources like salt/soda ash).

Energy density comparison:

• Sodium is heavier/larger ions → inherently lower specific energy (Wh/kg) than lithium-ion.
• But the gap narrows with smart design optimizations (lighter other components, better cathodes like layered transition-metal oxides).
• Commercial sodium-ion now approaches LFP (lithium iron phosphate, a common safe/cheap lithium variant) levels—around 160–175 Wh/kg in leading.
• Some sodium-ion chemistries already approach LFP lithium batteries (used widely in EVs)

Important comparison:

• Sodium-ion ≈ LFP lithium-ion
• Sodium-ion ≠ high-end NMC lithium batteries (used in premium EVs)
• So sodium-ion won’t replace all lithium batteries — but it’s good enough for many applications.

Safety: a major advantage

This is one of sodium-ion’s biggest strengths.

Lithium-ion problems

• Can overheat and catch fire (thermal runaway)
• Classified as dangerous goods
• Must be shipped partially charged (≤30%)
• Strict, expensive transport rules

Why sodium-ion is safer

• Much lower heat during failure
• Can be stored and shipped at zero charge
• Uses aluminium instead of copper, avoiding dangerous reactions

This means:

• Cheaper logistics
• Easier storage
• Safer manufacturing and transport

Manufacturing: easier than expected

Good news for industry:

• Sodium-ion batteries can be made using existing lithium-ion factories
• Only small modifications are needed

Main difference:

• Sodium-ion is more sensitive to moisture
• Needs better vacuum drying (slightly higher cost)

But this issue is expected to shrink with better manufacturing tech.

Materials: the real game-changer

Sodium-ion batteries:

• Use sodium, which is abundant and widely available
• Can avoid critical minerals altogether
• Use aluminium instead of copper (cheaper, lighter, plentiful)

For India, this means:

• Less exposure to global commodity shocks
• Stronger supply-chain independence
• Lower long-term costs

Is sodium-ion actually real or just experimental?

It’s already happening:

• ~70 GWh capacity operational globally (2025)
• Expected to reach ~400 GWh by 2030
• Likely to be cheaper than lithium-ion by 2035

For India, sodium-ion offers energy security, reduced import reliance, and leverage of domestic resources (e.g., salt, iron, manganese).

What India should do (policy recommendations)

Policy & regulation

• Include sodium-ion in incentives like PLI
• Update safety and certification standards
• Design battery plants to support both lithium and sodium

EV industry

• Encourage EV makers to approve sodium-ion battery versions
• Allow quick switching if lithium prices spike

Public funding

• Stationary storage (solar + batteries)
• Support R&D and pilot projects
• Focus on:
  • Grid storage
  • Two-wheelers & three-wheelers

Practice MCQ:

Consider the following statements regarding sodium-ion batteries:

1. Sodium-ion batteries are considered safer than lithium-ion batteries because they have a lower risk of thermal runaway.
2. Sodium-ion batteries have a higher energy density than lithium-ion batteries due to sodium’s lower atomic mass.
3. Sodium-ion batteries use copper as a current collector, similar to lithium-ion batteries.

Which of the above statements is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2, and 3

Answer: a) 1 only