China says ‘never recognised’ U.T. of Ladakh; India hits back
Why in news?
China rejected India’s standardisation of 28 feature names in Ladakh, saying it never recognised the UT; India rejected the claim.
UPSC Relevance
Prelims – LAC sectors, McMahon, Johnson, Radcliffe and Durand lines, border lengths, border guarding forces, Survey of India
Mains
GS2: India and its neighbourhood relations
GS3: Security challenges and their management in border areas
India-China Boundary
- India and China share a 3,488 km boundary, the third longest land border of India.
- It is not a settled international boundary. In most parts, the two sides are separated by the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
| Sector | States / UT | Length | Key disputed areas / flashpoints |
| Western | Ladakh | ~1,597 km | Aksai Chin (~38,000 sq km under Chinese occupation); Shaksgam valley (5,180 sq km ceded by Pakistan to China in 1963); Galwan, Depsang, Demchok, Pangong Tso, Gogra-Hot Springs (PP-15, PP-17A) |
| Middle | Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand | ~545 km | Barahoti (Uttarakhand), Kaurik and Shipki La area; least contentious – only sector where maps were exchanged (2002) |
| Eastern | Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh | ~1,346 km | China claims about 90,000 sq km of Arunachal as “Zangnan” or South Tibet, especially Tawang; Yangtse clash (2022); Naku La (Sikkim, 2020); Doklam tri-junction with Bhutan (2017) |
Important Boundary Lines
| Line | Year / Drawn by | Between | Present status |
| Johnson Line | 1865, W.H. Johnson (Survey of India) | Ladakh (J&K) and Xinjiang | Places Aksai Chin in India; basis of India’s claim. China rejects it. |
| Macartney-MacDonald Line | 1899, proposed by British to Qing China | Ladakh and Xinjiang | Placed most of Aksai Chin in China; China never formally replied. Close to China’s present claim. |
| McMahon Line | 1914, Henry McMahon at Simla Convention | British India and Tibet (eastern sector) | India treats it as the boundary; China rejects it, saying Tibet could not sign treaties. |
| Radcliffe Line | 1947, Sir Cyril Radcliffe | India-Pakistan and India-Bangladesh (then East Pakistan) | International Boundary; announced on 17 August 1947. |
| Durand Line | 1893, Mortimer Durand and Amir Abdur Rahman | Afghanistan and British India (now Pakistan) | Not recognised by Afghanistan; India is not a party but its 106 km Afghan border lies in PoK. |
| Line of Control (LoC) | Ceasefire line of 1949 (Karachi Agreement); renamed LoC by Simla Agreement 1972 | India and Pakistan in J&K | Military control line, about 740 km; not an international border. |
| Actual Ground Position Line (AGPL) | After Operation Meghdoot, 1984 | India and Pakistan in Siachen | About 110 km from NJ9842 northwards; India holds Saltoro Ridge. |
| Line of Actual Control (LAC) | Term used by Zhou Enlai in 1959; agreed in 1993 agreement | India and China | Neither delineated nor demarcated; both sides perceive it differently. |
- Sir Creek – A 96 km tidal estuary in the Rann of Kutch between Gujarat and Sindh. Pakistan claims the whole creek based on a 1914 map; India relies on the Thalweg principle (mid-channel). The dispute affects the maritime boundary and EEZ.
India’s Land Borders – Legal Status and Guarding Force
India has a land border of about 15,106.7 km with seven countries.
| Country | Length | Legal basis / status | Main issues | Guarded by |
| Bangladesh | 4,096.7 km | Radcliffe Award; Land Boundary Agreement 1974, implemented by 100th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2015. Settled | Illegal migration, cattle and drug smuggling, riverine gaps in fencing | BSF |
| China | 3,488 km | No agreed boundary; LAC in Ladakh and Arunachal. Sikkim boundary settled by Anglo-Chinese Convention, 1890 | Aksai Chin, Arunachal, LAC transgressions, infrastructure race | ITBP (with Army) |
| Pakistan | 3,323 km | IB (Radcliffe Line) in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab and Jammu; LoC and AGPL in J&K | J&K and PoK, Siachen, Sir Creek, cross-border terrorism | BSF on IB; Army on LoC and AGPL |
| Nepal | 1,751 km | Treaty of Sugauli, 1816; open border under 1950 Treaty of Peace and Friendship | Kalapani-Lipulekh-Limpiyadhura; Susta (river shift); misuse of open border | SSB |
| Myanmar | 1,643 km | 1967 Boundary Agreement. Settled | Insurgents, drugs, arms; Free Movement Regime decided to be scrapped and border fenced (2024) | Assam Rifles |
| Bhutan | 699 km | Demarcated; 1949 Treaty revised in 2007. Settled | No dispute with India; China’s claims near Doklam affect India | SSB |
| Afghanistan | 106 km | Lies in Gilgit-Baltistan (PoK) along Wakhan corridor | Not under India’s physical control | – |
Practice MCQ
Q1. Consider the following pairs:
Boundary Line : Between
- McMahon Line : India and China (eastern sector)
- Durand Line : Afghanistan and Pakistan
- Johnson Line : India and Nepal
- Radcliffe Line : India and Bangladesh
How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) Only three
(d) All four
Answer: (c)
Explanation: Pair 3 is incorrect. The Johnson Line (1865) relates to the boundary between Ladakh and Xinjiang and places Aksai Chin in India. The Radcliffe Line divides India from both Pakistan and Bangladesh.
Q2. With reference to the guarding of India’s borders, consider the following statements:
- The Indo-Tibetan Border Police was raised in 1962 and guards the India-China border.
- The Sashastra Seema Bal guards India’s borders with Nepal and Bhutan.
- The Border Security Force alone guards the Line of Control, without any role of the Indian Army.
How many of the statements given above are correct?
(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) All three
(d) None
Answer: (b)
Explanation: Statement 3 is incorrect. The LoC is manned by the Indian Army; BSF units deployed there work under the Army’s operational control.