UPSC Philosophy Optional Question Paper 2026: Paper I and Paper II, All Questions
Every question from the UPSC Philosophy optional 2026 Paper I and Paper II, with marks, syllabus units and which thinkers carried the weight.
The UPSC philosophy optional paper 2026 is set out below in full: every question from Paper I and Paper II, with its marks and the syllabus unit it tests. Both papers ran for three hours and 250 marks, with 8 questions of 50 marks printed in two sections. You answer 5; Q1 and Q5 are compulsory, and the other three must include at least one from each section.
Paper I puts Western philosophy in Section A and Indian philosophy in Section B. Paper II puts socio-political philosophy in Section A and philosophy of religion in Section B. The unit-wise marks after each paper show which thinkers and schools carried the weight in 2026.
Philosophy Optional 2026 Paper I
Official paper: Philosophy Optional 2026 Paper I (UPSC PDF). Time allowed three hours, maximum marks 250.
Section A had no dominant thinker: Kant and Hegel together took 40 marks, while the analytic tradition (Moore, early and later Wittgenstein, the logical positivists and Strawson) took 80 of Section A’s 200 printed marks. Section B leaned on Vedanta at 45 marks, through Nimbarka, Ramanuja and the Dvaita theory of five-fold difference, with Nyaya-Vaisesika and Samkhya-Yoga close behind at 40 each.
Section A
| Q. | Question | Marks | Unit |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1(a) | How does Spinoza explain the relationship between states of mind and bodily processes? | 10 | Rationalism & Empiricism |
| 1(b) | Explain the distinction between Intuitive knowledge and Demonstrative knowledge as propounded by Locke. | 10 | Rationalism & Empiricism |
| 1(c) | Explain Hegel’s idea that the concept of the Absolute as being is the concept of the Absolute as becoming as a process of self-development. | 10 | Kant & Hegel |
| 1(d) | Compare and contrast the notion of entelechy as presented in Aristotle’s and Leibniz’s philosophy. | 10 | Plato & Aristotle |
| 1(e) | “I can prove now, for instance, that two human hands exist.” How does Moore use this illustration to prove the existence of an external world? Critically discuss. | 10 | Moore, Russell & Early Wittgenstein |
| 2(a) | What, according to Aristotle, is the fundamental problem of metaphysics? Discuss this in relation with Aristotle’s account of the essence of the world, where he rejects the views of both the Atomists and Plato. | 20 | Plato & Aristotle |
| 2(b) | How does Hume account for ideas of reason? How does Kant respond to Hume’s views in this regard? Critically discuss. | 15 | Kant & Hegel |
| 2(c) | Describe Sartre’s notion of consciousness as ‘nothing’. How is it different from Husserl’s notion of consciousness? Discuss. | 15 | Phenomenology & Existentialism |
| 3(a) | Why are states of consciousness ascribed to anything at all and why are they ascribed to the same things to which we also ascribe physical properties? How does Strawson answer these questions in his work Individuals? | 20 | Quine & Strawson |
| 3(b) | Explain Heidegger’s conception of authenticity and inauthenticity as modes of Dasein’s being. | 15 | Phenomenology & Existentialism |
| 3(c) | Can words be viewed as the ideas in the mind of the person who uses them? Answer with reference to the philosophy of later Wittgenstein. | 15 | Later Wittgenstein |
| 4(a) | “Wittgenstein’s difficulty about not being able to say anything within a given language about the structure of that language can be met by the idea of a hierarchy of languages.” Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons and justifications for your answer. | 20 | Moore, Russell & Early Wittgenstein |
| 4(b) | Analyze and discuss the different ways in which Kant and Hegel conceived the relationship between reality and our thinking about reality. | 15 | Kant & Hegel |
| 4(c) | How did the logical positivists try to make philosophy a handmaid to science and establish a unified language of science? Why did their project fail? Discuss. | 15 | Logical Positivism |
Section B
| Q. | Question | Marks | Unit |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5(a) | According to Nyaya view of inference (Anumana), what are the characteristics that ascertain the validity of inferential sign (Hetu)? Discuss. | 10 | Nyaya-Vaisesika |
| 5(b) | How does the Buddhist theory of momentariness problematize the issue of human action and responsibility? Critically discuss. | 10 | Jainism & Buddhism |
| 5(c) | Is Purusa one or many? Explain and examine the Samkhya position in this context. | 10 | Samkhya & Yoga |
| 5(d) | Critically explain the nature of Samavaya (inherence) as propounded in Vaisesika philosophy. | 10 | Nyaya-Vaisesika |
| 5(e) | Explain, as per Yoga philosophy, the nature of Samadhi with special reference to the difference between Samprajnata Samadhi and Asamprajnata Samadhi. | 10 | Samkhya & Yoga |
| 6(a) | “A mango tree is grown out of a mango seed.” How do the Samkhya philosophers explain this process through their theory of causation by rejecting their rival perspectives? | 20 | Samkhya & Yoga |
| 6(b) | Explain the basic characteristics of Sri Aurobindo’s Integral Yoga for the realization of supramental consciousness through triple transformation. | 15 | Sri Aurobindo |
| 6(c) | Bring out the main points of contestation between Naiyayikas and Prabhakara Mimamsakas with reference to knowledge through words (Sabdabodha). | 15 | Mimamsa |
| 7(a) | Critically explain the arguments presented by the Akhyativadins for explaining erroneous cognition. Evaluate the arguments against Akhyativadins by the Anyathakhyativadins. | 20 | Mimamsa |
| 7(b) | Explain the meaning of seven steps of judgement (Saptabhanginaya) and its application in Jaina’s Syadvada for advocating a philosophy of non-absolutism (Anekantavada). | 15 | Jainism & Buddhism |
| 7(c) | Do you agree with Nimbarka’s explanation of the nature of God, Souls and Matter? Justify your answer. | 15 | Vedanta |
| 8(a) | Present an account of Upamana as an instrument of knowledge (Pramana). How is Nyaya view of Upamana different from Mimamsa view? Discuss. | 20 | Nyaya-Vaisesika |
| 8(b) | Critically explain Ramanuja’s conception of Brahman with special reference to the difficulties in explaining the relation of Brahman to Spirit (Cit) and Matter (Acit). | 15 | Vedanta |
| 8(c) | Why does the Dualistic School of Vedanta consider that differences (Bhedas) have separate existence and constitute the unique nature of things? Answer with reference to the theory of five-fold difference (Pancavidhabheda). | 15 | Vedanta |
2026 Paper I: where the marks sat
| Unit | Marks | Share of paper |
|---|---|---|
| Vedanta | 45 | 11.2% |
| Kant & Hegel | 40 | 10.0% |
| Nyaya-Vaisesika | 40 | 10.0% |
| Samkhya & Yoga | 40 | 10.0% |
| Mimamsa | 35 | 8.8% |
| Moore, Russell & Early Wittgenstein | 30 | 7.5% |
| Phenomenology & Existentialism | 30 | 7.5% |
| Plato & Aristotle | 30 | 7.5% |
| Jainism & Buddhism | 25 | 6.2% |
| Quine & Strawson | 20 | 5.0% |
| Rationalism & Empiricism | 20 | 5.0% |
| Later Wittgenstein | 15 | 3.8% |
| Logical Positivism | 15 | 3.8% |
| Sri Aurobindo | 15 | 3.8% |
Philosophy Optional 2026 Paper II
Official paper: Philosophy Optional 2026 Paper II (UPSC PDF). Time allowed three hours, maximum marks 250.
Section A spread its 200 marks across seven units, and four of them took 35 each: social and political ideals, sovereignty, forms of government and ideologies, and gender and caste discrimination. Section B leaned on religion and morality (35 marks, including Gandhi’s shift from God is Truth to Truth is God), with religious language, pluralism and notions of God at 30 each. Indian thinkers ran through both sections: Kautilya, Ambedkar, Gandhi and Madhvacharya.
Section A
| Q. | Question | Marks | Unit |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1(a) | Why does Rawls consider it necessary that the two principles of justice be applied in lexical order ? Explain. | 10 | Social & Political Ideals |
| 1(b) | Is Plato’s vision of an ideal state compatible with the rights and liberties of individual citizens ? Discuss. | 10 | Social & Political Ideals |
| 1(c) | Anarchism is not an independent political ideology in itself, rather it is inspired by liberalism on the one hand and socialism on the other. Analyze. | 10 | Forms of Government & Ideologies |
| 1(d) | On what grounds does Marxism criticize pure democracy ? | 10 | Forms of Government & Ideologies |
| 1(e) | How does value based education address the problem of corruption ? | 10 | Crime & Punishment |
| 2(a) | Evaluate the importance of Kautilya’s theory of Rajamandala in the context of sovereignty. | 20 | Sovereignty |
| 2(b) | Does providing land and property rights to women constitute a necessary condition or a sufficient condition or both for ensuring social equality among the genders ? Discuss. | 15 | Gender & Caste Discrimination |
| 2(c) | Examine the challenges faced by a multicultural society in creating a harmonious balance between group rights and individual rights. | 15 | Humanism, Secularism & Multiculturalism |
| 3(a) | Retributivism presents a deontological justification for capital punishment, whereas deterrence presents a consequential justification for it. Explain. | 20 | Crime & Punishment |
| 3(b) | “The two antagonistic state structures – monarchy and democracy, both share some common features with dictatorship”. Do you agree with this view ? Give reasons and justifications for your answer. | 15 | Forms of Government & Ideologies |
| 3(c) | Negative liberty seems to embody the idea of ultimate personal freedom, whereas positive liberty enables individuals to achieve their full potential. Discuss. | 15 | Social & Political Ideals |
| 4(a) | How has Ambedkar applied the concept of ‘Social Endosmosis’ for annihilation of castes. Evaluate its relevance for contemporary debates on identity and the politics of difference. | 20 | Gender & Caste Discrimination |
| 4(b) | Explain the contrast between the monistic and pluralistic approaches to sovereignty. | 15 | Sovereignty |
| 4(c) | Examine the relationship between democracy and development. Does democracy promote or hinder development ? | 15 | Development & Social Progress |
Section B
| Q. | Question | Marks | Unit |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5(a) | On what grounds does William James characterize mystical states as a genuine expression of religious experience ? Elaborate. | 10 | Faith, Reason & Religious Experience |
| 5(b) | Discuss Aquinas’ argument from the contingency of the world to prove the existence of God. | 10 | Proofs for the Existence of God |
| 5(c) | How does Paul Tillich’s idea of faith as ultimate concern address the relation between faith, doubt and reason ? Evaluate. | 10 | Faith, Reason & Religious Experience |
| 5(d) | Critically discuss the views of R. B. Braithwaite on the nature of religious language. | 10 | Religious Language |
| 5(e) | “If religion were a subject of reason alone, it would have lacked an experiential account.” Do you agree with this statement ? Give reasons in support of your answer. | 10 | Faith, Reason & Religious Experience |
| 6(a) | In what sense does St. Augustine’s identification of all evil as either sin or as the punishment of sin succeed or fail in providing a coherent account of both moral and natural evil ? Evaluate. | 20 | Problem of Evil |
| 6(b) | How does the issue of moral autonomy conflict with conception of religion as a source of morality ? Critically discuss. | 15 | Religion & Morality |
| 6(c) | Does the idea of Religious Pluralism necessarily entail moral relativism ? Critically discuss. | 15 | Religious Pluralism |
| 7(a) | Analyse R. M. Hare’s concept of ‘blik’ and assess whether it successfully defends the meaningfulness of religious language. | 20 | Religious Language |
| 7(b) | Discuss the difference between personalistic and impersonalistic notions of God in the context of devotion. | 15 | Notions of God |
| 7(c) | Can conflicting truth claims among religions be reconciled within the framework of religious pluralism ? Critically discuss. | 15 | Religious Pluralism |
| 8(a) | Critically evaluate the shift in Gandhi’s view from ‘God is Truth’ to ‘Truth is God’, in the context of interrelation between religion and morality. | 20 | Religion & Morality |
| 8(b) | Explain and examine Madhvacharya’s arguments for the existence of God. | 15 | Proofs for the Existence of God |
| 8(c) | Present an account of criticisms against omniscience and omnipotence as attributes of God. | 15 | Notions of God |
2026 Paper II: where the marks sat
| Unit | Marks | Share of paper |
|---|---|---|
| Forms of Government & Ideologies | 35 | 8.8% |
| Gender & Caste Discrimination | 35 | 8.8% |
| Religion & Morality | 35 | 8.8% |
| Social & Political Ideals | 35 | 8.8% |
| Sovereignty | 35 | 8.8% |
| Crime & Punishment | 30 | 7.5% |
| Faith, Reason & Religious Experience | 30 | 7.5% |
| Notions of God | 30 | 7.5% |
| Religious Language | 30 | 7.5% |
| Religious Pluralism | 30 | 7.5% |
| Proofs for the Existence of God | 25 | 6.2% |
| Problem of Evil | 20 | 5.0% |
| Development & Social Progress | 15 | 3.8% |
| Humanism, Secularism & Multiculturalism | 15 | 3.8% |
What the 2026 Philosophy Papers Reward
Every one of Paper I’s 28 parts named a philosopher or a school, and many asked how two positions disagree: Hume and Kant, Sartre and Husserl, Naiyayikas and Prabhakara Mimamsakas, Akhyativadins and Anyathakhyativadins. A broad summary doesn’t survive that kind of question. The answer has to state each position in its own vocabulary before it sets one against the other.
Paper II worked differently. Section A mostly asked about concepts and debates, such as lexical order, negative against positive liberty, retributivism against deterrence and group rights against individual rights, and tied some of them to Indian thinkers such as Kautilya and Ambedkar. That makes Paper II the paper where a clear argument and one contemporary example carry much of the answer, while Paper I rewards textual precision.
In Paper I’s Western half, Rationalism & Empiricism held 45 to 50 marks from 2023 to 2025, then dropped to 20 in 2026, the same year Plato & Aristotle (30) and Kant & Hegel (40) hit their four-year highs. On the Indian side, Vedanta swings hardest (55, 10, 65, 45). Samkhya & Yoga went from 15 in 2025 to 40 in 2026, and Jainism & Buddhism, which here also holds the Carvaka questions, fell from 60 in 2024 to 25.
In Paper II, Religion & Morality climbed from 10 marks in 2023 and 2024 to 25 and then 35, Religious Pluralism rose from 10 in 2024 to 30, and Sovereignty sat at 15 to 20 before reaching 35 in 2026. Notions of God looks like it fell from 80 to 30, but most of its 2023 to 2025 marks are questions on the soul, rebirth, liberation, agnosticism and religion without God, which the 2026 unit list has no slot for. Count only questions on the nature of God and the unit scores 25, 30, 0 and 30.
Paper I: marks by unit, 2023 to 2026
| Unit | 2023 | 2024 | 2025 | 2026 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vedanta | 55 | 10 | 65 | 45 |
| Kant & Hegel | 30 | 25 | 25 | 40 |
| Nyaya-Vaisesika | 60 | 35 | 40 | 40 |
| Samkhya & Yoga | 15 | 35 | 15 | 40 |
| Mimamsa | 30 | 45 | 25 | 35 |
| Plato & Aristotle | 15 | 10 | 20 | 30 |
| Moore, Russell & Early Wittgenstein | 15 | 30 | 25 | 30 |
| Phenomenology & Existentialism | 40 | 45 | 30 | 30 |
| Jainism & Buddhism | 30 | 60 | 40 | 25 |
| Rationalism & Empiricism | 45 | 50 | 50 | 20 |
| Quine & Strawson | 20 | 15 | 15 | 20 |
| Logical Positivism | 20 | 15 | 15 | 15 |
| Later Wittgenstein | 15 | 10 | 20 | 15 |
| Sri Aurobindo | 10 | 15 | 15 | 15 |
Paper II: marks by unit, 2023 to 2026
| Unit | 2023 | 2024 | 2025 | 2026 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Social & Political Ideals | 25 | 55 | 45 | 35 |
| Sovereignty | 20 | 15 | 15 | 35 |
| Forms of Government & Ideologies | 55 | 20 | 40 | 35 |
| Gender & Caste Discrimination | 40 | 30 | 30 | 35 |
| Religion & Morality | 10 | 10 | 25 | 35 |
| Crime & Punishment | 20 | 15 | 30 | 30 |
| Notions of God | 70 | 80 | 35 | 30 |
| Faith, Reason & Religious Experience | 40 | 40 | 45 | 30 |
| Religious Pluralism | 15 | 10 | 20 | 30 |
| Religious Language | 25 | 30 | 25 | 30 |
| Proofs for the Existence of God | 20 | 15 | 35 | 25 |
| Problem of Evil | 20 | 15 | 15 | 20 |
| Humanism, Secularism & Multiculturalism | 25 | 50 | 25 | 15 |
| Development & Social Progress | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 |
The <a href=”/philosophy-optional-upsc-guide/”>Philosophy optional guide</a> covers who the subject suits, the booklist, a 24-week roadmap and the answer-writing approach both papers need.
To weigh Philosophy against other subjects, see <a href=”/upsc-optional-subjects/”>UPSC optional subjects</a>, or browse the <a href=”/upsc-optional-notes/”>optional notes directory</a> for guides to all 48 subjects.
Frequently Asked Questions
What was asked in the UPSC Philosophy optional 2026 papers?
Paper I asked about Western philosophers from Aristotle and Spinoza to Heidegger, Strawson and later Wittgenstein in Section A, and Indian schools from Nyaya and Samkhya to Jainism, Mimamsa and Vedanta in Section B. Paper II covered socio-political philosophy and philosophy of religion, with questions on Rawls, Kautilya, Ambedkar, Augustine, R. M. Hare and Gandhi.
How many questions and marks are in each Philosophy paper?
Each paper carries 250 marks and runs for three hours. UPSC printed 8 questions of 50 marks in two sections, and you answer 5. Q1 and Q5 are compulsory, and at least one of the other three must come from each section.
Where can I download the official Philosophy 2026 question paper?
UPSC posts the official papers, in Hindi and English, on the previous question papers page of upsc.gov.in. Each paper on this page also has its own download link.
How should I use the 2026 Philosophy paper in my preparation?
Check each question against your notes and ask whether you could state the thinker’s position in its own terms and then set it against a rival view, since many 2026 parts were built on that contrast. For Paper II, practice turning a concept such as lexical order or social endosmosis into a 150-word answer with one contemporary example.
How does the 2026 Philosophy paper compare with earlier years?
This page covers 2026 only. Between the two papers, Paper I tested named thinkers and schools in all 28 of its parts, while Paper II asked more about concepts and debates. For earlier years, the official papers on UPSC’s previous question papers page are the most reliable record.
Which Indian schools carried the most marks in Philosophy Paper I 2026?
Vedanta carried 45 marks through Nimbarka, Ramanuja and the Dvaita theory of five-fold difference. Nyaya-Vaisesika and Samkhya-Yoga followed at 40 marks each, and Mimamsa took 35, through theories of error and knowledge from words.