Why in News? 

The Strait of Hormuz is at the epicentre of a global economic and maritime crisis. Following the unprovoked US-Israeli attack on Iran on February 28, the waterway now has the status of a “war zone”, placing severe restrictions on the passage of global shipping.

Location of the Strait of Hormuz:

• The Strait of Hormuz is the world’s most important oil chokepoint and critical to global energy flows.
• It is bounded to the north by Iran and to the south by Oman and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). It connects the Gulf with the Arabian Sea.
• The corridor is only about 50 km wide at its entrance and exit, and about 33 km wide at its narrowest point. 

Why is it critical to the global energy flow?

• High Volume Dependency: Around 20-25% of global seaborne oil and roughly 15% of liquefied natural gas (LNG) passes through the Strait daily. 
• Primary Exit Route: It is the primary route for oil exports from Saudi Arabia, Iran, the UAE, Kuwait, Iraq, and Qatar.
• Minimal Alternatives: Very few alternatives exist to bypass the strait; only Saudi Arabia and the UAE possess pipelines that could circumvent it.
• Impact on Global Prices: Any disruption, such as regional conflict, vessel seizures, or threats to shipping, immediately drives up oil prices and disrupts global supply chains.
• Vital to Asia: The majority of the oil passing through the strait (roughly 82%) goes to Asian markets, with China, India, and Japan being the top importers. 

The restrictions on the passage of global shipping have caused the marine insurance premiums to jump from 400% to 600%, and Iran is reportedly demanding tolls of up to $1 per barrel of oil for transit.

UNCLOS, Freedom of Navigation, and the Strait of Hormuz:

• The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) was adopted in 1982. It lays down a comprehensive regime of law and order in the world’s oceans and seas, establishing rules governing all uses of the oceans and their resources.
• Territorial Waters under UNCLOS:
  • UNCLOS defines territorial waters as extending up to 12 nautical miles from a coastal state’s baseline. 
  • Within this zone, the coastal state exercises full sovereignty, similar to its land territory, subject to certain navigational rights of other states. 
• Maritime choke points and the challenge: Strategic chokepoints (E.g., straits) are often located within overlapping territorial waters. This creates tension between state sovereignty and global freedom of navigation. To address this, UNCLOS establishes two key navigation regimes.

Navigation Regimes under UNCLOS:

1. Innocent Passage: 

• Applies to all territorial seas. Allows foreign vessels to pass through coastal waters, provided the passage is: (i) Continuous and expeditious, (ii) Non-threatening to the coastal states. 
• Restrictions: No military exercises, intelligence gathering, or pollution.
• Coastal states can: Regulate passage; Temporarily suspend innocent passage on security grounds (must be non-discriminatory). 

2. Transit Passage (for International Straits): 

• Applies specifically to straits used for international navigation. Passage must be continuous and expeditious. 
• Unlike in the case of innocent passage, the coastal state cannot suspend or hamper transit passage in any way, nor can it discriminate against vessels based on flag. 

Iran’s Position and Legal Controversy: 

• The Strait of Hormuz connects the Persian Gulf to the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea. The navigable channel lies within the territorial waters of Iran and Oman. It qualifies as a strait used for international navigation (Transit Passage regime applies).
• Iran’s closure of the Strait brings it into direct conflict with the UNCLOS regime of Transit Passage. Iran has signed but has not ratified UNCLOS (similar to the United States).

The Strait of Hormuz is no mere waterway but a vital “jugular vein”, whose closure or disruption poses a grave threat to global security and economic growth. 

Why in News?

Recently, the Supreme Court of India raised serious concerns about the large-scale exclusion of voters during the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in West Bengal.

The Court observed that:

The right to vote and to be included in the electoral roll is not merely a legal right, but also a deeply “sentimental” and democratic right.

This issue is important because it directly affects:

• Democratic participation
• Fairness of elections
• Trust in institutions like the Election Commission

UPSC Relevance:

GS-II: Role of Election Commission of India, Salient Features of the Representation of the People Act, Judicial review, judicial activism, protection of fundamental rights, due process, Federalism, Right to Vote

Constitutional and Legal Framework

(a) Nature of the Right to Vote

Legally, the right to vote is:

• A statutory right (given by law, not directly by the Constitution)

However, it is rooted in:

Article 326 → Universal Adult Suffrage

This means:

• Every adult citizen has the right to vote (subject to conditions like age, non-disqualification)

Why it is important:

Even though it is not a Fundamental Right, voting is:

• The foundation of democracy
• A way for citizens to participate in governance
• A reflection of citizenship and political equality

(b) Link with Fundamental Rights

Although voting itself is statutory, its denial can violate Fundamental Rights:

Article 14 (Equality)

If voters are removed arbitrarily or selectively, it violates equality before law.

Article 21 (Due Process)

If a person is removed without proper hearing or fair procedure, it violates the right to life and personal liberty (which includes procedural fairness).

Article 19(1)(a) (Freedom of Expression)

Voting is considered an expression of political choice, so denying it affects freedom of expression.

What are the Key Issues Highlighted in the Case?

(1) Large-Scale Exclusion of Voters

A huge number of people were removed from electoral rolls:

• Around 34 lakh voters filed appeals

Even more concerning:

• Some excluded individuals had valid documents like:
  • Aadhaar
  • Passport

Why this is problematic:

• It suggests errors or arbitrariness in the process
• It leads to disenfranchisement (loss of voting rights)

(2) Introduction of “Logical Discrepancy”

The Election Commission used a new category called “logical discrepancy” to remove names.

Problem:

• The term is not clearly defined
• It was not used in other states

Implication:

• Creates confusion and inconsistency
• Opens the door for misuse or arbitrary decisions

(3) Timing of Revision (Just Before Elections)

The revision was done very close to the election dates.

Why this is a concern:

• Voters do not get enough time to:
  • Understand why they were removed
  • File appeals
• Administrative pressure increases, leading to:
  • Errors
  • Poor scrutiny

(4) Weak Appellate Mechanism

• 34 lakh appeals handled by only 19 tribunals
• Each tribunal has more than 1 lakh cases

Consequences:

• Hearings may become:
  • Rushed
  • Superficial
• Genuine cases may not be properly examined

(5) Lack of Due Process

The Court described the process as “inquisitorial”, meaning:

• Authorities act on their own
• Citizens are forced to prove their eligibility

Ideal system should be:

• Adjudicatory, meaning:
  • Fair hearing
  • Neutral decision-making
  • Reasoned orders

What are Supreme Court’s Key Observations

(1) Voting as a Core Democratic Right

The Supreme Court of India emphasized that:

• Voting is not just a legal act
• It is:
  • A symbol of citizenship
  • An act of participation in democracy
  • A reflection of national belonging

(2) Importance of Due Process

The Court stressed that:

• Any removal from electoral roll must be:
  • Fair
  • Transparent
  • Based on clear reasons

Without this, the process becomes arbitrary.

(3) Means Matter as Much as Ends

The Election Commission argued that the revision was needed to “clean” the electoral roll.

The Court responded:

Even if the goal is correct, the method must be fair

This reflects a key constitutional principle:

• Ends cannot justify unfair means

(4) Need for Strong Appeal System

The Court emphasized:

• Appeals should not be rushed
• Proper time and infrastructure must be given

Because: Wrong exclusion from voting is a serious democratic injury

Broader Constitutional Themes

(1) Free and Fair Elections

Free and fair elections are part of the Basic Structure of the Constitution.

If voters are wrongly excluded:

• Election results may not reflect the true will of the people

(2) Role of Election Commission

The Election Commission is a constitutional body under Article 324.

Its role includes:

• Conducting elections
• Preparing electoral rolls

Challenge:

It must balance:

• Efficiency (clean rolls)
• Fairness (no wrongful exclusion)

(3) Due Process vs Administrative Efficiency

There is a tension between:

• Quickly completing electoral processes
  and
• Ensuring fairness and accuracy

In democracy, fairness must take priority over speed

(4) Institutional Conflict

The issue also showed tension between:

• Election Commission
• State government

Result: Voters get “sandwiched” between institutions

Critical Analysis

(1) Is Right to Vote Really Just “Statutory”?

Though legally statutory:

• Practically, it is:
  • Essential for democracy
  • Closely linked with dignity and equality

Therefore, it has quasi-fundamental importance

(2) Risk of Disenfranchisement

Large-scale exclusion may:

• Distort election outcomes
• Reduce legitimacy of government

(3) Data and Verification Issues

• Errors in data matching
• Identity verification problems

 Technology can help, but also create new risks

(4) Lack of Uniform Standards

Different rules in different states:

• Violates equality
• Creates confusion

Way Forward

(1) Strengthen Due Process

Before removing a voter:

• Proper notice must be given
• Opportunity to be heard must be ensured
• Clear reasons must be recorded

(2) Define Clear Criteria

Terms like “logical discrepancy” must be:

• Clearly defined
• Uniformly applied

(3) Improve Appeal Mechanism

• Increase number of tribunals
• Ensure adequate time for hearings

(4) Avoid Last-Minute Changes

Electoral roll revisions should be:

• Done well in advance
• Predictable and transparent

(5) Responsible Use of Technology

• Ensure accuracy of data
• Maintain accountability

(6) Better Coordination

• Election Commission and State governments must cooperate
• Avoid blame games

Conclusion

The issue shows that although the right to vote is legally statutory, it is central to democratic participation and legitimacy.

Any arbitrary exclusion of voters undermines free and fair elections, which are part of the Constitution’s basic structure. Therefore, ensuring fair procedures, transparency, and accountability in electoral roll management is essential for strengthening Indian democracy.

 “Democracy does not begin at the polling booth, but with an inclusive and accurate electoral roll. Ensuring that no eligible voter is excluded is the first step towards free and fair elections.”