Migrants in India — Internal Migration, Interstate Workers and the e-Shram Framework (UPSC Indian Society)

Internal migration shaped India's modernity. The 2011 Census recorded 45.6 crore internal migrants (37% of the population) — a 45% increase over 2001. Post-COVID estimates by Economic Survey 2023-24 and independent researchers suggest the actual number is closer to 60 crore, with significant circular migration that census snapshots miss. Migration is the silent engine of urban growth, rural remittances, female labour force dynamics and national productivity.

Yet migrant workers are among the most precarious groups in the Indian economy. The 2020 reverse migration during the COVID lockdown laid bare institutional failures — undercounting, no social protection portability, no urban entitlements. Reforms since have partially addressed these gaps.

This guide maps internal migration in India, its drivers, vulnerabilities and the emerging policy framework.

Types of Migration

By duration:

• Seasonal — agricultural and construction cycles.
• Circular — back-and-forth movement across seasons/years.
• Long-term — permanent relocation.

By geography:

• Intra-district — largest share of migration.
• Inter-district within state.
• Inter-state.
• International (outbound migration is not the focus here).

By reason:

• Work/Employment — mostly male long-distance migration.
• Marriage — mostly female migration (largest reason for female migration).
• Business.
• Education.
• Family relocation.

Migration Corridors

The most travelled internal corridors:

• UP, Bihar, Odisha, Jharkhand, West Bengal → Delhi NCR, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Punjab.
• Bihar and UP → Delhi, Punjab, Maharashtra.
• Chhattisgarh → UP, MP, Maharashtra.
• Within Kerala — Bengali, Assamese and Odia migrants increasingly dominate construction, hospitality and fisheries.

Constitutional and Legal Framework

• Article 19(1)(d) and (e) — right to move freely and to reside in any part of India.
• Article 19(1)(g) — right to practise any profession.
• Article 14 and 21 — equality and dignity.
• Article 32 and 226 — enforcement of fundamental rights.

Key Laws

• Inter-State Migrant Workmen (RECS) Act 1979 — registration of contractors, wages, welfare. Poorly implemented; subsumed into OSH Code 2020.
• Contract Labour Act 1970.
• Minimum Wages Act 1948.
• Factories Act 1948.
• BOCW Act 1996 — Building and Other Construction Workers.
• OSH Code 2020 — introduces new migrant worker definition and some portable benefits.
• Code on Social Security 2020 — includes gig and platform workers.

The COVID Migration Crisis

March-May 2020 saw mass reverse migration — millions of workers walked, cycled or crowded onto Shramik trains back to their villages. The crisis revealed:

• Absent real-time migrant database.
• No portability of welfare (PDS, pension, health).
• No cushion against informal sector shocks.
• Coordination failure between states.

The Supreme Court in In Re: Problems and Miseries of Migrant Labourers (2020-21) issued multiple directions — census of workers, implementation of existing labour laws, e-Shram rollout, one-nation-one-ration.

Post-COVID Reforms

e-Shram Portal

Launched August 2021 — registration of unorganised workers with a Universal Account Number (UAN). As of 2024, 30+ crore workers have registered. Key features:

• Self-registration via Aadhaar.
• UAN as portable identity.
• Social security linkages — Ayushman Bharat, PMJJBY, PMSBY.
• Skill records and employment history.

One Nation One Ration Card (ONORC)

Rolled out across all states by 2022. Allows migrant workers to draw PDS entitlements anywhere in India using an Aadhaar-linked ration card.

Migration Data Initiatives

• Labour Bureau surveys.
• NSS-PLFS Migration Survey 2020-21 — published 2022.
• State-level migration monitoring cells.
• Ministry of Labour's e-Migrant portal for interstate movement tracking (in development).

PM-SVANidhi

For street vendors — affordable loans of Rs 10,000, Rs 20,000, Rs 50,000 with interest subvention and digital transaction incentives.

Gig Worker Regulation

• Code on Social Security 2020 recognises gig and platform workers.
• Karnataka Platform-Based Gig Workers (Social Security and Welfare) Bill 2024 and Rajasthan Platform Based Gig Workers Act 2023 — state-level pioneers.

Vulnerabilities of Migrant Workers

• No written contracts for 80-90% of migrant work.
• Wage theft and underpayment.
• Long hours and unsafe working conditions.
• Poor housing — overcrowded dormitories, informal settlements.
• Limited access to health — lack of local registration.
• Children out of school — interstate migration disrupts education.
• Exclusion from urban welfare — ration, housing, electoral rolls.
• Female migrant vulnerability — domestic work sector particularly exposed.

Urban Entitlements

Migrants in cities face a double exclusion:

• Not counted in host-city census or welfare rolls.
• Not present to access source-village entitlements.

The Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban) and Deen Dayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Urban Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NULM) have begun to include migrant-relevant components — rental housing, skill training, street-vendor support.

Affordable Rental Housing Complexes (ARHC)

Launched 2020 under PMAY(U). Two models — existing government housing converted to rental, and public-private partnerships. Rollout has been slow; over 120 projects under construction.

Women Migrants

Most female migration in India is marriage-related, but labour-force female migration has grown — in domestic work, garment factories, care work. Specific vulnerabilities include:

• Domestic worker exploitation — weak legal framework.
• Harassment in workplaces and transit.
• Child care access in destination cities.

The Domestic Workers (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Bill has been under consideration for over a decade; India has not yet ratified ILO Convention 189 on domestic workers.

Political Rights

• Voting rights — migrants are registered in their home constituency; they often cannot return to vote, effectively disenfranchising millions.
• Election Commission‘s Remote Voting Machine (RVM) proposal (2022) remains under consultation.

Latest Developments (2024-26)

e-Shram Expansion. By late 2024, over 30 crore workers registered. Integration with state welfare schemes accelerating.

Supreme Court on Migrant Welfare. Continued monitoring of the 2020-21 In Re: Problems and Miseries of Migrant Labourers directions; states submitting compliance affidavits.

Labour Code Rollout. OSH, Wages, Social Security, IR Codes — implementation pending on rule harmonisation; most states have notified rules by 2024.

Gig Worker Laws. Rajasthan Platform Based Gig Workers (Registration and Welfare) Act 2023; Karnataka Platform-Based Gig Workers Bill 2024; Ministry of Labour working on national framework.

Domestic Worker Policy. Consultations ongoing; no central statute yet.

RVM Consultation. Election Commission's remote voting consultation continuing; no operational rollout yet by 2024-25.

ARHC Rollout. Target revised; about 120 projects under construction by 2024.

Caste Census 2025. Union Cabinet approved caste enumeration in the next national census (April 2025); migration data will be refreshed with caste-disaggregated information.

MPI 2024. Global Multidimensional Poverty Index 2024 reported 415 million Indians exited multidimensional poverty between 2005-06 and 2019-21; migrant remittances are a key poverty-exit driver.

Women's Reservation Act. The Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam 2023 — post-delimitation, women's political representation may push domestic worker and female migrant welfare agenda.

Global Gender Gap Index 2024. India ranked 129/146; female labour force participation has risen but migrant women’s share in it is under-counted.

Policy Recommendations

• Full migrant worker database through e-Shram with real-time updates.
• Urban inclusion — local voter registration options, ration portability, health ID.
• Rental housing at scale — ARHC expansion.
• Domestic worker law — central statute with mandatory registration.
• Ratify ILO Convention 189 on domestic workers.
• Migrant-friendly schooling — admission protocols, language support.
• Social security portability through UAN and ONORC.
• Remote voting — operationalise RVM.

UPSC Relevance

GS Paper I — Indian Society

• Population and associated issues; poverty and developmental issues.
• Urbanisation, their problems and their remedies.

GS Paper II — Governance, Social Justice

• Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections.
• Issues relating to social sector development.

GS Paper III — Economy

• Inclusive growth; employment.

Possible mains questions

1. "Migration is a solution to poverty but a source of vulnerability. Examine India's policy response." (250 words)
2. "The COVID migrant crisis revealed the institutional blindness to internal migration. Discuss the reforms since." (150 words)
3. "Urban governance in India has failed its migrant citizens. Critically analyse." (150 words)

Prelims pointers. Census 2011 — 45.6 crore internal migrants; Inter-State Migrant Workmen (RECS) Act 1979 (subsumed in OSH Code 2020); e-Shram (2021); UAN; ONORC (2019-22 rollout); ARHC (2020); BOCW Act 1996; NSS-PLFS Migration Survey 2020-21; Rajasthan Gig Workers Act 2023; Karnataka Gig Workers Bill 2024.

Essay themes. "The invisible workers"; "A union of the restless"; "From source to destination".

Internal migration is not a problem to solve but a reality to plan for. India's future productivity, gender equity and urban form depend on getting migration policy right.