Wetlands in India: Ramsar Sites, Threats and Conservation (UPSC Environment)
UPSC guide to wetlands in India: Ramsar Convention, NPCA, threats, Montreux Record, 85 Ramsar sites and 2024-26 updates.
Wetlands are areas where water meets land — permanently or seasonally, naturally or artificially. The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (1971) defines them to include marshes, floodplains, rivers, lakes, mangroves, coral reefs and other marine areas up to 6 metres deep at low tide, as well as human-made wetlands like wastewater treatment ponds and reservoirs. That makes the term far broader than the everyday image of a swamp.
Wetlands are among the planet's most productive ecosystems. They filter water, recharge aquifers, buffer floods, trap sediment, stabilise coasts, regulate climate and support nearly 40% of the world's known plant and animal species. India has 75 notified wetlands of international importance (as of 2025 — updated count given below), and tens of thousands of smaller wetlands at national and local level.
What Wetlands Do
| Service | Contribution |
|---|---|
| Water supply | Natural recharge of surface and groundwater |
| Water purification | Trap sediments, absorb nitrogen and phosphorus |
| Flood moderation | Slow and spread floodwaters |
| Erosion control | Root networks stabilise banks and coasts |
| Climate regulation | Store carbon (peatlands especially); cool urban microclimates |
| Food and fibre | Fish, rice, reeds, medicinal plants |
| Biodiversity habitat | Migratory birds, amphibians, fish, aquatic mammals |
| Cultural value | Sacred groves, pilgrimage, livelihoods |
Threats to Indian Wetlands
Urbanisation
Wetlands near urban centres face relentless pressure from residential, industrial and commercial development. Bengaluru lost 79% of its wetlands in three decades. Chennai's 2015 and 2023 floods were partly a consequence of built-up encroachment on the Pallikaranai marsh and Buckingham Canal. Delhi's Yamuna floodplain is riddled with illegal construction.
Anthropogenic Conversion
Unplanned agriculture, industry, roads, impoundments, dredging, sand mining and solid waste dumping have drained and transformed vast stretches.
Agricultural Pressure
Post-Green Revolution, wetlands across Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu were converted to paddy fields. Reservoirs, canals and dams built to support irrigation altered the hydrology of downstream wetlands.
Hydrological Alteration
Canal construction and river diversion for water transfer — from catchment to command areas — disrupt natural drainage and reduce wetland inflows.
Deforestation
Loss of vegetation in catchments increases soil erosion and silt loading in downstream wetlands.
Pollution
Unrestricted sewage and industrial effluent discharge. Wetlands like Vembanad (Kerala) and Deepor Beel (Assam) are on ecological watch lists.
Salinization
Over-extraction of groundwater near coasts leads to saline intrusion that degrades freshwater wetlands.
Aquaculture
Commercial shrimp and fish farming has converted large stretches of mangrove and estuarine wetlands, especially in Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha and Gujarat.
The Ramsar Convention
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands was signed in Ramsar, Iran (1971) and came into force in 1975. India became a party in 1982. It is the world's oldest intergovernmental environmental treaty. Its mission: "the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local and national actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world."
The Three Pillars
- Wise use of all wetlands in the territory of each Contracting Party.
- Designation of suitable wetlands for the List of Wetlands of International Importance — the Ramsar List.
- International cooperation on transboundary wetlands and shared species.
Wise Use
The concept at the heart of Ramsar. "Wise use" means the maintenance of the ecological character of wetlands within the context of sustainable development. It is not preservation in a pristine state; it is ecological integrity plus sensible human use.
Montreux Record
A register of Ramsar sites where ecological character has changed, is changing, or is likely to change due to technological developments, pollution or human interference. Two Indian sites are on the Montreux Record: Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur, Rajasthan) and Loktak Lake (Manipur).
India's Ramsar Sites
India has been designating Ramsar sites at an accelerated pace since 2020. From 26 sites in 2020 to 75 sites covering over 1.33 million hectares by 2023, the network has become one of the largest in South Asia. Tamil Nadu has the most Ramsar sites of any Indian state.
Major Ramsar sites include Chilika Lake (Odisha), Loktak Lake (Manipur), Keoladeo (Rajasthan), Wular Lake (J&K), Sundarbans (West Bengal), Bhitarkanika mangroves (Odisha), Harike (Punjab), Point Calimere (Tamil Nadu), Nalsarovar (Gujarat), Ashtamudi and Vembanad (Kerala), and Hokera (Kashmir).
Legal and Institutional Framework in India
Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules 2017
Notified under the Environment Protection Act 1986, these rules:
- Define regulated activities (discharge of effluents, solid waste dumping, encroachment prohibited).
- Create State Wetland Authorities in every state.
- Provide for integrated management plans.
- Prohibit certain activities outright.
National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA)
- Formulated in 2015 by merging the National Lake Conservation Plan and National Wetlands Conservation Programme.
- A centrally sponsored scheme under MoEFCC.
- Provides technical and financial assistance for wetland conservation to states.
- Promotes a single integrated approach rather than separate programmes for lakes and wetlands.
Amrit Dharohar
Launched in 2023 under the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules 2017, Amrit Dharohar focuses on conservation of Ramsar sites through community participation, eco-tourism, traditional knowledge and livelihood opportunities.
Mishti Initiative
Announced in Budget 2023, Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats and Tangible Incomes (MISHTI) promotes mangrove plantation along coastlines and saltpan lands.
Challenges in Wetland Conservation
- Multiple jurisdictions: agriculture, fisheries, irrigation, revenue, tourism, water resources and local governments all touch wetlands, often with conflicting priorities.
- Forest department has direct jurisdiction over mangroves.
- Weak enforcement of regulatory framework at state and local levels.
- Limited state government commitment in many provinces.
- Annual MAP cycles of the earlier NWCP worked against integrated, multi-year planning.
- Few State Wetland Authorities are fully operational.
- Encroachment of urban water bodies by builders, slum settlements and roads.
- Loopholes exploited to declassify wetlands for conversion.
Way Forward
- Integrated planning, execution and monitoring across line departments.
- Comprehensive mapping and inventory of wetlands at national, state and local level, regularly updated using satellite data.
- Effective enforcement of the 2017 Rules, with empowered State Wetland Authorities.
- Protection from encroachment through clear wetland boundaries in revenue records.
- Technical tie-ups with ecologists, hydrologists, economists and watershed specialists.
- Awareness campaigns in local schools and communities.
- Continuous water quality monitoring.
- Payment for ecosystem services to communities that maintain wetlands.
- Recognising Ramsar sites as instruments of climate adaptation and disaster risk reduction.
Latest Developments (2024–26)
Updated context:
- India's Ramsar tally reached 85 sites in 2024–25 (updated number), the highest in South Asia. Tamil Nadu leads with over a dozen sites.
- Amrit Dharohar has been extended with additional sites and community livelihood components since 2024.
- Ramsar COP15 (scheduled for 2025) will review implementation of the 2023–30 Strategic Plan.
- ISFR 2023 reports mangrove cover at 4,992 sq km, a marginal increase.
- Sundarbans facing rapid saltwater intrusion post Cyclone Remal (2024) and Cyclone Dana (2024).
- Chennai wetlands — restoration of Pallikaranai marsh expanded after 2023 floods.
- Urban wetland policy drafts (2024–25) under MoHUA recognise wetlands as core blue-green infrastructure.
- Supreme Court rulings (2024–25) reaffirmed that ecologically sensitive wetlands cannot be denotified for commercial use.
UPSC Relevance
Paper mapping: GS Paper III — Environment, Biodiversity; GS Paper I — Indian geography; Disaster Management.
Prelims pointers:
- Ramsar Convention was signed in Ramsar, Iran (1971), in force from 1975.
- India joined Ramsar in 1982.
- The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules were notified in 2017.
- NPCA (2015) merges the National Lake Conservation Plan and National Wetlands Conservation Programme.
- Montreux Record lists Keoladeo National Park and Loktak Lake from India.
- Tamil Nadu has the most Ramsar sites of any Indian state.
- Amrit Dharohar was launched in 2023.
- MISHTI targets mangrove plantation.
- "Wise use" is the central concept of Ramsar.
Mains angles:
- "Discuss the ecological significance of wetlands and evaluate India's institutional framework for their conservation."
- "Wetlands are critical to climate adaptation and disaster risk reduction. Discuss with examples from Indian Ramsar sites."