Why in News?

During the ongoing Sabarimala review hearing before a nine-judge Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court, the Union government argued that all religious practices are constitutionally protected unless they violate public order, morality or health under Articles 25 and 26 of the Constitution.

The Centre questioned the long-standing “Essential Religious Practices” (ERP) doctrine evolved by the judiciary, arguing that the Constitution itself does not use the phrase “essential religious practices”. The hearing has revived broader constitutional debates concerning:

• Religious freedom
• Judicial review of faith-based practices
• Rights of religious denominations
• Equality and constitutional morality

UPSC Relevance

GS Paper 2

• Fundamental Rights, Judiciary and constitutional interpretation, Secularism in India, Freedom of religion and minority rights

GS Paper 1

• Indian society and religion, Social reform movements, gender justice

Essay

• Constitutional morality versus social morality
• Religion and constitutional governance
• Freedom and reform in a plural society

Background and Context

The Sabarimala issue concerns the entry of women of menstruating age (traditionally between 10 and 50 years) into the Sabarimala temple dedicated to Lord Ayyappa in Kerala.

The restriction was historically justified on the basis that:

• Lord Ayyappa is worshipped as a “Naishtika Brahmachari” (eternal celibate).
• The temple constituted a separate religious denomination with the right to preserve its practices.

In 2018, a five-judge Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court, in the Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala case, struck down the exclusionary practice by a 4:1 majority.

The Court held that:

• The practice violated equality and dignity of women.
• Biological characteristics such as menstruation cannot be grounds for exclusion.
• Constitutional morality prevails over discriminatory customs.

Subsequently, review petitions were filed, leading to a larger constitutional reference examining broader questions regarding:

• Scope of religious freedom
• Essential Religious Practices doctrine
• Relationship between Articles 25 and 26
• Judicial role in examining faith-based practices

Constitutional Framework on Religious Freedom

Article 25

Article 25 guarantees:

• Freedom of conscience
• Freedom to profess, practice and propagate religion

However, this right is subject to:

• Public order
• Morality
• Health
• Other Fundamental Rights

The Article protects both:

• Individual religious freedom
• Religious practices

Social Reform Clause

Article 25(2) allows the State to enact laws for:

• Social welfare
• Religious reform
• Opening Hindu religious institutions to all classes and sections

This provision reflects the Constitution’s reformist vision.

Article 26

Article 26 grants religious denominations the right to:

• Establish religious institutions
• Manage religious affairs
• Own and administer property

Again, these rights are subject to:

• Public order
• Morality
• Health

The central constitutional question is whether denominational autonomy can override equality-based claims.

The Essential Religious Practices (ERP) Doctrine

The ERP doctrine was developed judicially to determine which practices deserve constitutional protection under Articles 25 and 26.

Under this doctrine:

• Only practices considered “essential” to a religion receive constitutional protection.
• Non-essential or secular practices can be regulated by the State.

The Court therefore examines:

• Religious texts
• Historical traditions
• Nature of the practice
• Centrality to the religion

This doctrine has become one of the most influential yet controversial aspects of Indian constitutional law.

Origin of the ERP Doctrine

Shirur Mutt Case (1954)

In Commissioner, Hindu Religious Endowments v. Sri Lakshmindra Thirtha Swamiar of Shirur Mutt, the Supreme Court held:

• Essential parts of religion are protected under Article 25.
• Courts can determine what constitutes an essential practice.

This judgment became the foundation of ERP jurisprudence.

Evolution of the Doctrine

Over time, courts used the ERP doctrine in various disputes involving:

• Temple entry
• Animal sacrifice
• Religious processions
• Dress codes
• Women’s entry into religious spaces

However, critics argue that courts increasingly became arbiters of theology rather than constitutional adjudicators.

The Centre’s Argument in the Present Hearing

The Union government argued that:

• The Constitution does not contain the phrase “essential religious practices”.
• Articles 25 and 26 should receive broad interpretation like other Fundamental Rights.
• Religious freedom should be presumed unless the practice violates public order, morality or health.

Key Constitutional Position

According to the Centre:

• The burden should lie on the challenger to prove constitutional violation.
• Courts should not narrowly protect only “essential” practices.
• Denominational and individual rights are interconnected.

The Centre argued that Article 26 is merely the collective manifestation of individual freedom of conscience under Article 25.

This interpretation seeks to reduce judicial scrutiny into theological questions.

Judicial Observations During Hearing

During the hearing, the Bench made broader philosophical observations regarding religion and spirituality.

Chief Justice Surya Kant observed that:

• Temple visits are not the sole expression of religiosity.
• Faith can exist independently of ritualistic practices.

Justice B.V. Nagarathna observed that:

• Hinduism is a way of life.
• Spirituality is not dependent solely on rituals or temple access.

These observations touched upon the distinction between:

• Inner freedom of conscience
• Organised religious practices

Legal scholar Mohan Gopal referred to this as “auto-theism”, emphasising individual spiritual autonomy.

Constitutional Morality versus Religious Autonomy

The Sabarimala issue lies at the intersection of two constitutional values:

Religious Freedom

Supporters of denominational autonomy argue that:

• Religious groups should preserve distinct traditions.
• Courts should avoid interfering in matters of faith.
• Secular courts lack competence in theological interpretation.

Equality and Non-Discrimination

Others argue that:

• Constitutional guarantees of equality override exclusionary customs.
• Gender-based exclusion violates dignity and individual liberty.
• Public religious institutions cannot discriminate.

This tension reflects a deeper constitutional debate:

Can practices rooted in faith survive constitutional scrutiny if they conflict with equality?

Constitutional Morality

The concept of constitutional morality was strongly invoked in the 2018 Sabarimala judgment.

The idea originates from Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, who argued that constitutional governance must be guided by:

• Liberty
• Equality
• Fraternity
• Dignity

rather than social prejudice or majoritarian morality.

The Court used constitutional morality to justify judicial intervention in discriminatory religious practices.

Gender Justice and Religious Reform

The Sabarimala case is also part of a broader trajectory of judicial reform concerning gender and religion.

Triple Talaq Case (2017)

The Supreme Court invalidated instant triple talaq as unconstitutional.

Haji Ali Dargah Case

Restrictions on women’s entry into the inner sanctum were challenged successfully.

Shani Shingnapur Temple Issue

Women’s entry restrictions were opposed using constitutional equality arguments.

These cases reflect growing judicial engagement with gender justice within religious institutions.

Criticisms of the ERP Doctrine

Judicial Overreach into Theology

Critics argue that courts:

• Lack expertise in religious interpretation
• Risk becoming theological authorities
• May selectively interpret traditions

This can undermine secular constitutionalism.

Inconsistency in Application

Different Benches have adopted varying standards for determining:

• What is “essential”
• Which practices deserve protection

This has created doctrinal inconsistency.

Narrowing Religious Freedom

Restricting protection only to “essential” practices may excessively limit religious liberty.

Many practices evolve culturally rather than doctrinally.

Risk of Majoritarian Interpretation

There are concerns that courts may unintentionally privilege dominant interpretations within religions while marginalising minority sects and traditions.

Arguments Supporting Judicial Scrutiny

Supporters of the ERP doctrine argue that:

• Fundamental Rights cannot be defeated by discriminatory customs.
• Constitutional courts must prevent practices violating dignity and equality.
• Social reform is part of the constitutional vision.

Without judicial scrutiny, practices such as:

• Untouchability
• Exclusionary customs
• Gender discrimination

could continue under the guise of religion.

Comparative Perspective

Different democracies adopt different approaches toward religion-state relations.

United States

American courts generally avoid determining theological “essentiality” and focus instead on:

• Sincerity of belief
• State interest tests

France

France follows strict secularism (laïcité), often restricting religious symbolism in public spaces.

India

India adopts:

• Principled distance
• Reform-oriented secularism
• State engagement with religion for social reform

Thus, Indian secularism differs significantly from Western models.

Broader Implications of the Sabarimala Review

The present constitutional reference may shape future judicial approaches toward:

• Temple entry disputes
• Personal laws
• Religious dress codes
• Denominational rights
• State regulation of religion

The outcome could redefine the balance between:

• Religious autonomy
• Equality
• Constitutional morality
• Judicial review

Way Forward

Evolving a Balanced Constitutional Approach

Courts must balance:

• Religious freedom
• Equality rights
• Dignity
• Social reform

without excessively entering theological domains.

A contextual and rights-based approach may be preferable to rigid doctrinal tests.

Clarifying the ERP Doctrine

The Supreme Court may consider:

• Refining the scope of ERP
• Limiting judicial theological inquiry
• Developing clearer constitutional standards

This would improve doctrinal consistency.

Strengthening Constitutional Dialogue

Sensitive religious disputes require:

• Judicial restraint
• Social dialogue
• Institutional sensitivity

Adversarial constitutionalism alone may not resolve deeply embedded social tensions.

Protecting Individual Dignity

Religious freedom should coexist with:

• Gender justice
• Equality
• Human dignity

Constitutional interpretation must ensure that vulnerable groups are not excluded from public religious life solely on discriminatory grounds.

Promoting Reform from Within Communities

Social reform movements emerging internally within religious communities can produce more sustainable and less polarising outcomes.

The Constitution itself encourages reform-oriented engagement with tradition.

Conclusion

The Sabarimala review hearing represents one of the most significant constitutional debates in contemporary India concerning religion, equality and judicial power. At its core lies the challenge of balancing collective religious autonomy with individual constitutional freedoms.

The Centre’s challenge to the Essential Religious Practices doctrine raises important questions regarding the judiciary’s role in interpreting faith and determining constitutional protection for religious practices. At the same time, the constitutional commitment to equality and dignity requires that religious freedom cannot become a shield for exclusion and discrimination.

The final outcome of the case may significantly shape the future of secularism, religious liberty and constitutional morality in India’s democratic framework.

UPSC Practice Questions

Prelims MCQ 1

With reference to the Essential Religious Practices (ERP) doctrine in India, consider the following statements:

1. The phrase “essential religious practices” is explicitly mentioned in the Constitution of India.
2. The ERP doctrine originated from the Shirur Mutt case.
3. Articles 25 and 26 are subject to public order, morality and health.

How many of the above statements are correct?

(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) All three
(d) None

Answer: (b) Only two

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is incorrect because the Constitution does not explicitly mention the phrase “essential religious practices”.
• Statement 2 is correct as the doctrine emerged from the Shirur Mutt judgment (1954).
• Statement 3 is correct because Articles 25 and 26 are subject to public order, morality and health.

Prelims MCQ 2

Which of the following cases is most closely associated with the origin of the Essential Religious Practices doctrine?

(a) Kesavananda Bharati case
(b) S.R. Bommai case
(c) Shirur Mutt case
(d) Minerva Mills case

Answer: (c) Shirur Mutt case

Explanation:

The Shirur Mutt case (1954) laid the foundation of the Essential Religious Practices doctrine under Articles 25 and 26.

UPSC Mains Questions

Examine the tension between religious freedom and constitutional morality in the context of the Sabarimala case. How should constitutional courts balance these competing claims?

Discuss the constitutional debate surrounding the Essential Religious Practices doctrine in India. Should courts determine what constitutes an essential religious practice?

Why in News?

The Supreme Court recently heard review petitions filed by several States and teachers’ associations against its September 2025 judgment mandating that in-service teachers of Classes I to VIII in non-minority schools must clear the Teachers Eligibility Test (TET) within two years or face compulsory retirement.

During the hearing, the Court emphasised that the Right to Education (RTE) framework exists primarily for the benefit of children and quality education, not merely for protecting employment security of teachers. The case has significant implications for:

• Teacher quality standards
• Educational reforms
• Right to Education implementation
• Federal and administrative challenges in school education

The issue potentially affects more than 25 lakh teachers across India.

UPSC Relevance

Prelims Relevance

• Right to Education Act, 2009, Teachers Eligibility Test (TET), Article 21A, National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE), Constitutional provisions related to education

Mains Relevance

GS Paper 2

• Education and human resource development, Right to Education, Quality of public education, Federal issues in implementation of welfare laws

GS Paper 1

• Social empowerment and educational access

Essay

• Education as a tool of social transformation
• Quality versus access in public education
• Human capital and development

Background and Context

India’s education system has historically faced dual challenges:

• Expanding access to schooling
• Improving quality of education

While enrolment rates have significantly improved over the past decades, learning outcomes remain a serious concern.

The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 (RTE Act) represented a landmark step toward universal elementary education. However, policymakers increasingly recognised that access without quality could not achieve meaningful educational transformation.

Teacher quality emerged as a central concern because:

• Teachers are the most important institutional factor influencing learning outcomes.
• Large numbers of teachers lacked professional training and pedagogical qualifications.
• Several States recruited para-teachers or underqualified teachers to address shortages.

The Teachers Eligibility Test (TET) was introduced to establish minimum quality standards for elementary school teachers across India.

Constitutional Basis of the Right to Education

Article 21A

The 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002 inserted Article 21A into the Constitution.

It provides:

“The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine.”

This transformed elementary education into a Fundamental Right.

Directive Principles and Educational Justice

Article 45

Originally directed the State to provide free and compulsory education for children.

After the 86th Amendment, Article 45 focuses on:

• Early childhood care and education

Article 46

Directs the State to promote educational interests of weaker sections.

Thus, educational access and quality are linked to:

• Equality
• Social justice
• Human development

Right to Education Act, 2009

The RTE Act operationalised Article 21A and came into force in 2010.

Key Objectives

The Act seeks to ensure:

• Universal elementary education
• Non-discrimination
• Neighbourhood schools
• Minimum infrastructure standards
• Qualified teachers

The law shifted the focus from charity-based education to a rights-based framework.

Section 23 and Teacher Qualifications

The present dispute revolves around Section 23 of the RTE Act.

Role of NCTE

Section 23 authorises the National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) to prescribe:

• Minimum qualifications for teachers

The NCTE made TET qualification mandatory for teaching elementary classes.

Relaxation Provision

Recognising shortages of trained teachers, Section 23(2) initially allowed States temporary relaxation in qualification requirements.

Teachers without minimum qualifications were granted time to acquire them.

2017 Amendment

The second proviso inserted in 2017 extended the deadline for certain in-service teachers appointed before March 31, 2015, allowing them additional time to acquire qualifications.

The amendment reflected practical realities such as:

• Teacher shortages
• Limited training infrastructure
• Regional disparities

What is the Teachers Eligibility Test (TET)?

TET is a standardised examination conducted to assess whether candidates possess minimum teaching aptitude and pedagogical competence.

There are generally two levels:

• Paper I: Classes I to V
• Paper II: Classes VI to VIII

The examination evaluates:

• Child pedagogy
• Subject knowledge
• Teaching methodology
• Classroom understanding

Purpose of TET

The objective is to:

• Improve teaching quality
• Standardise recruitment norms
• Ensure professionally competent teachers

TET is conducted by:

• Central Board of Secondary Education (for CTET)
• State authorities for State TETs

The Supreme Court’s 2025 Judgment

The September 2025 judgment held that:

• Clearing TET is a mandatory statutory requirement under the RTE framework.
• In-service teachers who fail to obtain TET qualification within two years could face compulsory retirement.

However, the Court exempted:

• Teachers with less than five years remaining before retirement

The judgment prioritised:

• Educational quality
• Children’s rights
• Statutory compliance

over administrative convenience.

Arguments by the Petitioners

States and teachers’ associations challenged the judgment primarily on the following grounds:

Retrospective Application

Petitioners argued that:

• Teachers appointed decades earlier should not face new qualification requirements retrospectively.
• They were recruited under earlier legal frameworks.

Threat to Livelihood

Compulsory retirement could affect:

• Financial security
• Pension rights
• Livelihoods of lakhs of teachers

Experience versus Qualification

Several petitioners argued that:

• Experienced teachers with long years of service should not be treated as unqualified solely for failing TET.
• Practical classroom experience also matters.

Teacher Shortages

States such as Tamil Nadu argued that large-scale enforcement could create:

• Severe vacancies
• Classroom disruptions
• Learning losses

particularly in rural government schools.

Supreme Court’s Observations

The Bench strongly emphasised the primacy of children’s rights under the RTE framework.

Justice Dipankar Datta observed that:

• Teachers should not focus solely on job security.
• The purpose of the RTE Act is to secure quality education for children.

Justice Manmohan stated that:

• The Court merely enforced statutory minimum standards.
• Better educational qualifications are necessary for improving learning outcomes.

The Court thus framed the issue as a balance between:

• Employment protection
• Educational quality
• Constitutional rights of children

Quality of Education and Learning Crisis in India

The debate must be viewed against the backdrop of India’s learning crisis.

ASER Reports

Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) findings repeatedly show:

• Weak foundational literacy
• Poor numeracy skills
• Learning deficits in government schools

Many students in higher grades struggle with:

• Basic reading
• Arithmetic skills

This has intensified policy emphasis on teacher competency.

National Education Policy (NEP) 2020

The NEP stresses:

• Teacher professionalism
• Continuous training
• Foundational learning
• Merit-based recruitment

The policy describes teachers as the “heart of the learning process”.

Teacher Shortage and Structural Problems

India simultaneously faces:

• Teacher shortages
• Teacher absenteeism
• Uneven teacher quality

According to Unified District Information System for Education (UDISE) data:

• Several schools operate with single teachers.
• Rural and tribal regions face acute shortages.

Thus, the challenge is not merely qualifications but broader educational governance.

Federal and Administrative Dimensions

Education is placed in the Concurrent List after the 42nd Constitutional Amendment.

Thus:

• Both Union and States legislate on education.
• Implementation largely depends on States.

This creates tensions because:

• National quality standards are centrally framed.
• Recruitment and school administration are State responsibilities.

Financial and administrative capacities vary significantly across States.

Minority Institutions and Constitutional Protection

The Court’s judgment applied to non-minority schools.

Minority educational institutions enjoy constitutional protection under:

• Article 30

The State’s regulatory power over minority institutions is more limited, especially regarding administrative autonomy.

This raises larger debates about:

• Uniform standards
• Minority rights
• Regulatory balance

Challenges in Implementing TET Mandates

Lack of Training Infrastructure

Many teachers, especially in rural areas, lack access to:

• Quality teacher training institutes
• Coaching facilities
• Digital learning platforms

Regional Disparities

Educational capacities differ significantly across States.

Backward districts may struggle more with compliance.

Risk of Teacher Vacancies

Strict enforcement without adequate replacement planning could worsen:

• Pupil-teacher ratios
• School functioning
• Rural educational access

Overemphasis on Examination-Based Qualification

Critics argue that:

• Teaching ability cannot be judged solely through standardised tests.
• Classroom experience and pedagogical practice also matter.

International Perspective

Countries with strong public education systems generally maintain:

• Rigorous teacher certification
• Periodic professional training
• Continuous evaluation

For example:

• Finland emphasises highly qualified teachers with strong pedagogical training.
• Singapore combines teacher quality with continuous professional development.

India’s challenge is to improve quality while accommodating large-scale diversity and capacity gaps.

Way Forward

Balancing Quality and Employment Security

Teacher quality standards are essential, but implementation should remain:

• Gradual
• Practical
• Sensitive to ground realities

A balanced transition framework is necessary.

Strengthening Teacher Training Systems

The focus should shift beyond one-time qualification exams toward:

• Continuous professional development
• Refresher programmes
• Digital learning platforms
• Pedagogical mentoring

Teacher capacity-building must become institutionalised.

Improving Foundational Education

Teacher reform should align with:

• Foundational literacy goals
• NEP 2020 objectives
• Child-centric pedagogy

Quality improvement must remain outcome-oriented.

Expanding Educational Infrastructure

States require greater support for:

• Teacher recruitment
• Training institutions
• Rural educational infrastructure

The Union and States must coordinate effectively.

Reforming TET Structure

TET examinations should assess:

• Practical teaching skills
• Classroom management
• Child psychology
• Inclusive pedagogy

rather than relying excessively on rote-based evaluation.

Incentivising Teacher Excellence

Career progression, incentives and recognition systems should encourage:

• Professional competence
• Innovation in teaching
• Continuous learning

This can improve morale and performance.

Protecting Children’s Right to Quality Education

Ultimately, educational policy must remain centred on:

• Learning outcomes
• Equity
• Constitutional rights of children

The right to education must include both:

• Access to schools
• Meaningful quality learning

Conclusion

The ongoing TET review case reflects a broader constitutional and policy debate regarding the meaning of the Right to Education in India. The Supreme Court’s observations underline that educational rights cannot be reduced merely to administrative or employment concerns.

India’s challenge lies in balancing:

• Teacher welfare
• Administrative feasibility
• Educational quality
• Constitutional obligations toward children

Improving teacher standards is necessary for strengthening India’s human capital and social development. However, reforms must be implemented in a manner that is equitable, institutionally supported and sensitive to regional disparities.

A rights-based education system ultimately depends not only on school access but also on ensuring that every child receives quality learning from competent and well-supported teachers.

UPSC Practice Questions

Prelims MCQ 1

With reference to the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, consider the following statements:

1. Article 21A was inserted by the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act.
2. The National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) prescribes minimum teacher qualifications under the RTE framework.
3. Education is exclusively a State subject under the Constitution of India.

How many of the above statements are correct?

(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) All three
(d) None

Answer: (b) Only two

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct because Article 21A was inserted by the 86th Amendment.
• Statement 2 is correct because NCTE prescribes minimum teacher qualifications under Section 23 of the RTE Act.
• Statement 3 is incorrect because education is in the Concurrent List after the 42nd Constitutional Amendment.

Prelims MCQ 2

Which of the following statements regarding the Teachers Eligibility Test (TET) is correct?

(a) It is conducted only by the Union government.
(b) It is mandatory only for private school teachers.
(c) It seeks to establish minimum teaching standards for elementary education.
(d) It was introduced through the National Education Policy, 2020.

Answer: (c) It seeks to establish minimum teaching standards for elementary education.

Explanation: TET was introduced under the RTE framework to ensure minimum pedagogical and professional standards for elementary school teachers.

Mains Questions

“Access to schooling without quality education cannot fulfil the constitutional vision of Article 21A.” Examine in the context of teacher quality reforms in India.

Discuss the constitutional and policy dimensions of the Teachers Eligibility Test (TET) in the context of the Right to Education framework in India.

Why in News?

A 10-year management plan prepared by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) for the Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary in Delhi has highlighted severe ecological degradation caused by invasive species, urban encroachment and unsustainable wildlife management practices.

The report found that the invasive tree species Prosopis juliflora covers nearly 63.48% of the sanctuary landscape, significantly affecting native biodiversity and ecological recovery. The plan also flagged:

• Habitat fragmentation
• Urban encroachment
• Stray cattle pressure
• Artificial feeding of rhesus macaques
• Pollution and waste dumping
• Weak ecological monitoring

The findings are important in the context of:

• Aravalli ecosystem conservation
• Urban ecology
• Biodiversity management
• Human-wildlife coexistence

UPSC Relevance

Prelims Relevance

• Invasive alien species, Aravalli ecosystem, Wildlife sanctuaries, Prosopis juliflora and Lantana camara, Biodiversity conservation, Human-wildlife conflict

Mains Relevance

GS Paper 3

• Conservation and environmental pollution, Biodiversity and invasive species, Human-wildlife conflict, Urban environmental governance, Climate resilience and ecosystem restoration

GS Paper 1

• Urbanisation and environmental challenges

Essay

• Ecological restoration and sustainable development
• Urbanisation versus conservation
• Human-nature coexistence

Background and Context

Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary

Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary is Delhi’s only notified wildlife sanctuary and forms part of the northern extension of the Aravalli hill system.

The sanctuary:

• Lies along the Delhi-Haryana border
• Covers ecologically fragile tropical thorn forest habitat
• Acts as a green buffer for the National Capital Region (NCR)
• Supports biodiversity including nilgai, jackals, reptiles, birds and smaller mammals

The sanctuary also performs critical ecological functions:

• Groundwater recharge
• Dust and pollution control
• Urban heat mitigation
• Carbon sequestration

Its ecological significance has increased due to rapid urbanisation around Delhi.

The Aravalli Ecosystem

Aravalli Range is one of the world’s oldest fold mountain systems.

The Aravallis:

• Extend from Gujarat to Delhi
• Act as a natural barrier against desertification from the Thar Desert
• Influence regional climate and rainfall
• Support dry deciduous and thorn forest ecosystems

However, the range faces severe threats from:

• Mining
• Urban expansion
• Habitat fragmentation
• Deforestation
• Invasive species

The degradation of Asola Bhatti reflects broader ecological stress affecting the Aravallis.

Understanding Invasive Alien Species

Definition

Invasive alien species are:

• Non-native organisms introduced outside their natural range
• Species that spread aggressively
• Organisms that cause ecological, economic or health-related harm

Unlike naturalised species, invasive species disrupt ecosystems by:

• Outcompeting native species
• Altering habitat structure
• Reducing biodiversity

Major Invasive Species in India

Some important invasive species include:

• Prosopis juliflora
• Lantana camara
• Water hyacinth
• Parthenium weed

The India State of Forest Report 2023 identified Prosopis juliflora and Lantana camara among major invasive species affecting Delhi’s forests.

Prosopis Juliflora: Ecological Impacts

Introduction and Spread

Prosopis juliflora, locally called “Vilayati Kikar”, is native to Central and South America.

It was introduced in India during the colonial period for:

• Afforestation
• Fuelwood supply
• Desertification control

Over time, it spread rapidly across dry and semi-arid landscapes.

Why It Became Invasive

The species possesses several characteristics that make it invasive:

• Rapid growth
• Deep root systems
• High drought resistance
• Aggressive seed dispersal
• Ability to survive poor soil conditions

It often forms dense monocultures that suppress native vegetation.

Ecological Consequences

Suppression of Native Flora

Dense Prosopis growth blocks sunlight and reduces space for native species such as:

• Dhauk (Anogeissus pendula), Palash, Babul

This reduces biodiversity and weakens ecological resilience.

Alteration of Habitat Structure

The species changes:

• Soil composition
• Water availability
• Fire patterns
• Habitat suitability for wildlife

This affects food chains and ecosystem functioning.

Impact on Groundwater and Soil

Research indicates that invasive species can:

• Alter groundwater recharge
• Reduce moisture availability
• Influence local microclimate

The Asola Bhatti plan specifically notes impacts on:

• Groundwater recharge
• Weather buffering
• Desertification control

Ecological Complexity

Despite being invasive, Prosopis juliflora also provides:

• Soil stabilisation
• Shade
• Sub-optimal habitat for some wildlife

Therefore, abrupt removal may create ecological instability.

This is why the management plan recommends:

• Phased removal
• Scientific restoration
• Continuous ecological monitoring

Lantana Camara and Forest Degradation

Lantana camara is another major invasive species affecting Indian forests.

It:

• Prevents regeneration of native plants
• Increases forest fire risks
• Reduces grazing quality
• Alters wildlife movement patterns

Lantana invasion is a major issue across:

• Western Ghats
• Central Indian forests
• Himalayan foothills
• Dry forests of North India

Human-Wildlife Conflict and Macaque Management

Rhesus Macaque Relocation

The sanctuary has received nearly 20,000 rhesus macaques relocated from urban areas over the years.

This has created ecological imbalance because:

• The sanctuary’s natural carrying capacity is limited.
• Food availability is inadequate for such large populations.

Artificial Feeding Problem

Artificial feeding at designated points has:

• Altered natural foraging behaviour
• Increased population growth
• Encouraged dependence on humans
• Increased human-wildlife conflict

The management plan describes this model as:

• Ecologically unsustainable
• Financially expensive

Carrying Capacity Concept

Carrying capacity refers to:

The maximum population size an ecosystem can sustainably support without ecological degradation.

Exceeding carrying capacity results in:

• Resource depletion
• Habitat degradation
• Competition among species

Suggested Measures

The plan recommends:

• Scientific population assessment
• Habitat enrichment
• Native fruit-bearing plantations
• Gradual withdrawal of artificial feeding
• Humane sterilisation programmes

Urbanisation and Encroachment Pressures

Settlement Expansion

Areas such as:

• Sangam Vihar
• Sanjay Colony
• Bhatti village

have expanded near the sanctuary.

This has caused:

• Habitat fragmentation
• Waste dumping
• Increased human interference

Habitat Fragmentation

Fragmentation breaks continuous habitats into smaller isolated patches.

Its consequences include:

• Reduced wildlife movement
• Declining genetic diversity
• Increased edge effects
• Higher human-animal interactions

Peri-Urban Ecological Stress

Expansion around:

• Devli
• Tughlaqabad

has intensified ecological pressures.

Urban sprawl around protected areas is increasingly becoming a major environmental challenge in India.

Stray Cattle and Ecological Pressure

The report identified stray cattle as major ecological competitors.

Camera-trap studies found:

• Stray cattle formed around 15.1% of mammal detections

Stray cattle:

• Compete with native herbivores
• Reduce water availability
• Disturb natural vegetation

The issue reflects weak urban livestock governance and poor waste management.

Waste Dumping and Pollution

The sanctuary faces:

• Sewage inflow
• Greywater contamination
• Garbage dumping
• Fire risks

Abandoned mining pits are reportedly used for:

• Waste disposal
• Sewage accumulation

This contributes to:

• Soil contamination
• Water pollution
• Habitat degradation

Weak Institutional and Administrative Capacity

The plan identified several governance deficiencies:

• Lack of standard operating procedures (SOPs)
• Weak monitoring systems
• Poor inter-agency coordination
• Inadequate staff training
• Limited scientific management

These challenges are common across many protected areas in India.

Legal and Policy Framework

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

Provides legal protection to:

• Wildlife habitats
• Protected areas
• Species conservation

Wildlife sanctuaries are governed under this law.

National Biodiversity Action Plan

India’s biodiversity framework recognises:

• Invasive alien species
• Habitat restoration
• Ecosystem-based conservation

as major priorities.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

India is a party to the Convention on Biological Diversity.

The CBD urges countries to:

• Prevent introduction of invasive species
• Control or eradicate harmful invasive organisms
• Restore degraded ecosystems

Bonn Challenge and Land Restoration

India has committed to restoring degraded landscapes under:

• Bonn Challenge
• UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration

Urban ecological restoration is increasingly important under these commitments.

Ecological Restoration and Native Species

The management plan recommends:

• Native vegetation restoration
• Soil-binding plants
• Nitrogen-fixing species

Suggested native species include:

• Dhauk
• Palash
• Salai
• Vetiver
• Babul
• Siris

Native species restoration improves:

• Biodiversity
• Water conservation
• Habitat resilience

Climate Change and Urban Ecology

Urban green spaces such as Asola Bhatti are increasingly important because they:

• Reduce urban heat island effects
• Improve air quality
• Enhance climate resilience
• Support ecological connectivity

Climate change may further intensify:

• Water stress
• Forest fires
• Habitat degradation

Therefore, protecting urban ecological systems has become a developmental necessity.

Challenges in Conservation

Balancing Restoration and Existing Ecological Dependence

Sudden removal of invasive species may:

• Destabilise soil
• Affect species dependent on existing cover

Restoration must therefore remain gradual and scientifically guided.

Governance Fragmentation

Multiple agencies operate in the Delhi-NCR region, including:

• Forest departments
• Municipal bodies
• Development authorities

Weak coordination undermines effective conservation.

Urban Population Pressure

High population density around the sanctuary increases:

• Resource pressure
• Waste generation
• Illegal activities

Limited Public Awareness

Urban residents often underestimate the ecological importance of urban forests and wildlife habitats.

Way Forward

Scientific Invasive Species Management

Removal of invasive species should be:

• Phased
• Evidence-based
• Monitored scientifically

Ecological restoration should accompany removal programmes.

Native Habitat Restoration

Priority should be given to:

• Indigenous vegetation
• Ecological connectivity
• Water conservation landscapes

Native species improve ecosystem stability.

Strengthening Urban Ecological Governance

Coordination among:

• Forest departments
• Urban local bodies
• Pollution control agencies
• Planning authorities

must be institutionalised.

Regulating Urban Encroachment

Strict monitoring and enforcement are needed to prevent:

• Illegal settlements
• Waste dumping
• Habitat destruction

Urban planning should integrate ecological buffers around protected areas.

Sustainable Human-Wildlife Coexistence

Scientific wildlife management should include:

• Population assessments
• Carrying-capacity studies
• Humane sterilisation where necessary
• Reduction of artificial feeding

Community Participation

Local communities should be involved in:

• Conservation awareness
• Waste management
• Eco-restoration programmes

Participatory conservation improves long-term sustainability.

Expanding Ecological Research and Monitoring

Protected areas require:

• Long-term biodiversity monitoring
• GIS-based habitat assessment
• Climate vulnerability studies
• Wildlife health surveillance

Evidence-based management is essential for urban ecosystems.

Conclusion

The ecological crisis in Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary illustrates the growing pressures faced by urban protected areas in India. Invasive species, habitat fragmentation, unplanned urbanisation and weak governance are collectively undermining ecological resilience in the fragile Aravalli ecosystem.

The issue demonstrates that conservation challenges today are no longer confined to remote forests but increasingly linked to urban expansion, ecological mismanagement and climate vulnerability. Protecting urban ecological landscapes such as Asola Bhatti is therefore critical not only for biodiversity conservation but also for groundwater security, climate resilience and sustainable urban development.

A scientifically informed, community-oriented and ecosystem-based approach will be essential for restoring ecological balance and ensuring long-term coexistence between urban populations and fragile natural habitats.

UPSC Practice Questions

Prelims MCQ 1

With reference to invasive alien species in India, consider the following statements:

1. Prosopis juliflora is native to India.
2. Lantana camara is considered an invasive species affecting Indian forests.
3. Invasive species can alter habitat structure and suppress native biodiversity.

How many of the above statements are correct?

(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) All three
(d) None

Answer: (b) Only two

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is incorrect because Prosopis juliflora is native to Central and South America.
• Statement 2 is correct because Lantana camara is a major invasive species in Indian forests.
• Statement 3 is correct because invasive species disrupt ecosystems and suppress native flora.

Prelims MCQ 2

The Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary is ecologically significant primarily because it:

(a) Protects mangrove ecosystems in Delhi
(b) Forms part of the Aravalli hill ecosystem
(c) Hosts alpine biodiversity
(d) Lies within the Gangetic floodplain ecosystem

Answer: (b) Forms part of the Aravalli hill ecosystem

Explanation:

Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary forms part of the northern extension of the Aravalli Range and serves as an important urban ecological buffer.

UPSC Mains Questions

Urbanisation and ecological degradation are increasingly intersecting in India’s protected landscapes. Analyse in the context of the Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary.

Discuss the ecological and governance challenges posed by invasive alien species in India. Examine with reference to urban protected areas.

Why in News?

The Delhi government has issued the final notification declaring around 670 hectares of the Central Ridge as a “Reserved Forest” under Section 20 of the Indian Forest Act, 1927. Simultaneously, the Forest Department has proposed ecological restoration initiatives, including:

• Development of themed forests (“vans”)
• Plantation of “native” tree species
• Restoration of degraded Ridge landscapes

However, ecologists and environmental experts have raised concerns regarding:

• Use of ecologically unsuitable tree species
• Anti-termite chemical treatment
• Contractor-driven plantation practices
• Misunderstanding of ecological restoration principles

The debate highlights broader issues relating to:

• Urban ecology
• Native biodiversity conservation
• Aravalli restoration
• Scientific forest governance

UPSC Relevance

Prelims Relevance

• Indian Forest Act, 1927, Reserved Forests, Aravalli ecosystem, Native vs exotic species, Ecological restoration, Miyawaki forests

Mains Relevance

GS Paper 3

• Conservation and environmental governance, Biodiversity restoration, Urban ecological challenges, Forest management and afforestation, Invasive species

GS Paper 1

• Urbanisation and environmental degradation

Essay

• Ecological restoration and sustainable development
• Scientific conservation versus symbolic environmentalism
• Nature-based urban planning

Background and Context

Delhi Ridge System

Delhi Ridge forms the northern extension of the ancient Aravalli Range and stretches across nearly 35 km through Delhi.

The Ridge:

• Functions as the “green lungs” of Delhi
• Acts as a barrier against desertification from the Thar Desert
• Moderates local climate
• Supports biodiversity and groundwater recharge
• Reduces dust pollution and urban heat island effects

The Ridge is divided into:

• Northern Ridge
• Central Ridge
• South-Central Ridge
• Southern Ridge

Among these, the Central Ridge is one of the most ecologically sensitive segments.

Reserved Forest under Indian Forest Act, 1927

The recent notification relates to the final declaration of the Central Ridge as a Reserved Forest.

Section 4 Notification

Under Section 4 of the Indian Forest Act:

• The government announces its intention to constitute a Reserved Forest.
• Settlement of rights and claims follows.

The Central Ridge was first notified under Section 4 in 1994.

Section 20 Notification

After settlement procedures are completed:

• Section 20 notification grants final legal status as a Reserved Forest.

The latest notification therefore completes a legal process pending for over three decades.

Importance of Reserved Forest Status

Reserved Forests receive the highest degree of protection under the Indian Forest Act.

Activities such as:

• Grazing
• Tree felling
• Construction
• Encroachment

are heavily restricted unless specifically permitted.

Ecological Importance of the Ridge

Dry Thorn Forest Ecosystem

The Ridge supports a tropical dry thorn forest ecosystem adapted to:

• Thin quartzitic soils
• Low moisture conditions
• High temperatures
• Arid climatic stress

Such ecosystems are naturally fragile and slow-growing.

Biodiversity Value

The Ridge supports:

• Native grasses, Shrubs, Birds, Reptiles, Small mammals, Pollinators

It also acts as an ecological corridor within the urban landscape.

Climate Regulation Role

The Ridge contributes to:

• Carbon sequestration, Temperature moderation, Air purification, Water infiltration

As Delhi faces worsening heatwaves and pollution, the Ridge’s ecological importance has increased significantly.

The Debate over Ecological Restoration

Restoration versus Plantation

A central concern raised by ecologists is the confusion between:

• Ecological restoration
  and
• Conventional plantation drives

Ecological Restoration

Ecological restoration seeks to:

• Rebuild natural ecosystems
• Restore ecological processes
• Revive native biodiversity
• Enhance long-term ecosystem resilience

Plantation-Centric Approach

Plantation programmes often prioritise:

• Number of trees planted
• Fast-growing species
• Visual greening

rather than ecological suitability.

This distinction is crucial because:

Planting trees alone does not necessarily restore ecosystems.

Native Species versus “Indian” Species

Understanding Native Species

The article highlights an important ecological concept:

• “Native” does not merely mean found within India’s political boundaries.

A species is native when it:

• Evolves naturally within a specific ecosystem
• Adapts to local climate, soils and ecological conditions

Thus, ecological nativeness is ecosystem-specific, not nationality-based.

Why Species Selection Matters

The Delhi government proposed species such as:

• Neem
• Jamun
• Tamarind
• Mango
• Shisham

However, ecologists argue these species are poorly suited to the Ridge ecosystem.

Ecological Mismatch

For example:

• Mango requires significant water
• Jamun thrives in moist conditions
• Shisham prefers deep alluvial soils
• Tamarind is frost-sensitive

The Ridge ecosystem instead supports drought-adapted vegetation suited to rocky terrain.

Planting ecologically unsuitable species often results in:

• High mortality
• Artificial irrigation dependence
• Resource wastage

Invasive Species and Historical Mistakes

Prosopis Juliflora (Vilayati Kikar)

Prosopis juliflora was introduced during colonial afforestation efforts.

The species spread aggressively because:

• It tolerates drought
• Grows rapidly
• Competes effectively with native plants

However, its success caused:

• Loss of native biodiversity
• Monoculture formation
• Alteration of habitat structure

The article notes that the dominance of vilayati kikar itself reflects past restoration failures.

Ecological Consequences of Monocultures

Monocultures reduce:

• Biodiversity
• Soil health
• Ecological resilience

They also weaken:

• Pollinator diversity
• Wildlife habitats
• Ecosystem stability

Anti-Termite Treatment Controversy

Role of Termites in Ecosystems

The Forest Department initially proposed anti-termite chemical treatment during plantation.

Ecologists opposed this because termites are:

• Important decomposers
• Soil aerators
• Nutrient recyclers

Termites improve:

• Nitrogen cycling
• Soil moisture retention
• Organic matter decomposition

In dry ecosystems, termites function as:

“Ecosystem engineers”

Living Soil Concept

Healthy ecosystems depend on “living soil” containing:

• Fungi
• Microorganisms
• Insects
• Organic matter

Excessive pesticide use destroys soil biodiversity and weakens ecological recovery.

Following criticism, the Forest Department withdrew the proposal.

Concerns Regarding Themed Forests and Miyawaki Model

Themed Forests (“Vans”)

The Delhi government plans themed forests such as:

• Panchvati Van
• Tirthankara Van
• Ritu Van

Concerns arise if such projects involve:

• Hardscaping
• Artificial landscaping
• Non-native plantations

These may violate the ecological purpose of Reserved Forests.

Miyawaki Forest Model

The Miyawaki technique involves:

• Dense plantation of mixed species
• Rapid forest creation in small urban areas

While useful in highly degraded urban spaces, ecologists argue:

• It is not suitable for all ecosystems.
• It may disrupt naturally open dry forest systems like the Ridge.

Dry forests evolve differently from tropical dense forests.

Governance and Institutional Challenges

Contractor-Driven Plantation Practices

A major issue identified is reliance on contractors for plantation work.

This creates problems such as:

• Procurement of cheaper exotic saplings
• Poor quality control
• Weak monitoring

The article cites the example of:

• “Jungle jalebi” (an exotic species) being planted instead of approved native species.

Weak Implementation Capacity

Even scientifically sound plans often fail because of:

• Lack of ecological expertise
• Administrative pressures
• Monitoring gaps
• Poor inter-agency coordination

Forest Working Plans and Timber Bias

The Forest Research Institute’s Working Plan reportedly emphasises:

• Timber increment estimation
• Plantation approaches

rather than:

• Ecological restoration
• Habitat regeneration
• Biodiversity recovery

This reflects a broader historical problem in Indian forestry where:

• Forests were treated as timber resources rather than ecological systems.

Legal and Policy Dimensions

Forest Conservation Act, 1980

The Act regulates diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes.

Any construction or hardscape development within forests may require:

• Forest clearance
• Environmental scrutiny

National Forest Policy, 1988

The policy shifted forestry focus toward:

• Ecological stability
• Biodiversity conservation
• Community participation

rather than commercial exploitation.

Bonn Challenge and Ecosystem Restoration

India has committed to restoring degraded landscapes under:

• Bonn Challenge
• UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration

Scientific restoration of the Ridge aligns with these commitments.

Urban Ecology and Climate Change

Urban forests such as the Ridge are increasingly critical because they:

• Reduce urban heat
• Improve air quality
• Enhance climate resilience
• Buffer extreme weather events

Delhi’s worsening:

• Heatwaves
• Air pollution
• Water stress

make ecological restoration an urban survival necessity rather than merely a conservation issue.

Challenges

Ecological Misunderstanding of Restoration

Restoration is often reduced to:

• Tree planting campaigns
• Beautification projects

instead of rebuilding ecological processes.

Use of Non-Native or Unsuitable Species

Incorrect species selection can:

• Increase water dependence
• Reduce survival rates
• Distort ecosystem functioning

Invasive Species Dominance

Existing invasive species continue to suppress native vegetation recovery.

Contractor-Based Plantation Model

Weak accountability often leads to:

• Species substitution
• Poor maintenance
• Ecological mismatch

Institutional Fragmentation

Multiple agencies govern Delhi’s environment, resulting in:

• Coordination failures
• Policy inconsistencies
• Weak enforcement

Urbanisation Pressure

Rapid urban expansion continues to:

• Fragment habitats
• Increase pollution
• Intensify ecological stress

Way Forward

Adopt Scientific Ecological Restoration

Restoration efforts should prioritise:

• Native ecosystem regeneration
• Soil restoration
• Habitat connectivity

rather than plantation targets alone.

Prepare Ecosystem-Specific Native Species Lists

Species selection must be based on:

• Soil conditions
• Rainfall patterns
• Ecological history
• Local biodiversity

The concept of “native” should remain ecosystem-specific.

Strengthen Ecological Monitoring

Continuous scientific monitoring should assess:

• Soil health
• Species survival
• Biodiversity recovery
• Invasive species spread

GIS and remote sensing technologies can support this process.

Control Invasive Species Scientifically

Gradual removal of invasive species should be combined with:

• Native vegetation restoration
• Soil conservation
• Habitat management

Reform Urban Forestry Governance

Urban forest governance should involve:

• Ecologists
• Botanists
• Soil scientists
• Local communities

rather than relying solely on contractor-driven approaches.

Integrate Climate Resilience into Restoration

Urban ecological restoration should support:

• Heat mitigation
• Water conservation
• Air pollution reduction
• Carbon sequestration

Increase Public Ecological Awareness

Public discourse should shift from:

• “More trees”
  to
• “Right trees in the right ecosystem”

Ecological literacy is essential for sustainable urban conservation.

Conclusion

The debate surrounding the restoration of Delhi’s Ridge reveals a deeper challenge in India’s environmental governance: the tendency to equate ecological restoration with plantation activity. The Ridge is not merely a vacant urban space requiring beautification, but a fragile dry forest ecosystem shaped by unique geological and climatic conditions over centuries.

Protecting and restoring such ecosystems demands scientific understanding, ecosystem-specific planning and long-term ecological commitment. Poorly planned interventions, even when well-intentioned, can undermine biodiversity, increase ecological stress and repeat historical restoration failures.

As climate change and urbanisation intensify environmental pressures, the future of cities like Delhi will increasingly depend on preserving ecologically functional natural landscapes rather than creating artificial green spaces disconnected from local ecosystems.

UPSC Practice Questions

1. Consider the following statements regarding ecological restoration:
2. Ecological restoration is identical to large-scale tree plantation.
3. Native species are determined primarily by ecological suitability to a specific ecosystem.
4. Invasive species can alter habitat structure and suppress biodiversity.

How many of the above statements are correct?

(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) All three
(d) None

Correct Answer: (b) Only two

Explanation:
Statement 1 is incorrect because ecological restoration involves restoring ecological processes and biodiversity, not merely planting trees.
Statement 2 is correct because ecological nativeness depends on ecosystem adaptation.
Statement 3 is correct because invasive species often disrupt ecological balance.

2. With reference to the Delhi Ridge, consider the following statements:
3. It forms part of the Aravalli hill system.
4. The Central Ridge was declared a Reserved Forest under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
5. The Ridge plays a role in preventing desertification in Delhi.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Correct Answer: (c) 1 and 3 only

Explanation:
Statement 1 is correct because the Ridge is the northern extension of the Aravallis.
Statement 2 is incorrect because Reserved Forests are notified under the Indian Forest Act, 1927.
Statement 3 is correct because the Ridge acts as a barrier against desertification from the Thar Desert.

Mains Question

Examine the ecological significance of the Delhi Ridge system. Why do restoration efforts in urban ecosystems often fail despite large-scale plantation programmes?

“Ecological restoration is not synonymous with plantation-driven greening.” Discuss in the context of urban forest governance in India.

Why in News? 

The Union Cabinet has approved a Rs 37,500 crore scheme to promote coal and lignite gasification projects. The initiative is a major step towards cleaner coal utilisation, energy security and import substitution.

It is estimated that coal gasification can help substitute imports of up to ₹3 lakh crore, and ensure self-reliance for India’s industries and overall economic security.

What is Coal Gasification?

• Coal gasification is a thermochemical process in which solid coal reacts with controlled amounts of oxygen (or air) and steam under high temperature and pressure conditions to produce synthesis gas (syngas). 
• This process breaks down coal into its chemical constituents, primarily carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen, which can then be used to produce electricity, chemical feedstocks, and liquid fuels.

What is Syngas? 

• Syngas is a cleaner-burning fuel mainly composed of Hydrogen (H₂) and Carbon Monoxide (CO). It may also contain Carbon dioxide (CO₂), Methane (CH₄) and Water vapour. 
• It is a versatile feedstock and can be further processed into a wide array of industrial and energy products. Syngas downstream products include: Hydrogen, methanol, ammonia, urea, ammonium nitrate, dimethyl ether (DME), synthetic natural gas (SNG), liquid fuels (via Fischer-Tropsch synthesis), and active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs)
• Applications: Syngas is used to generate electricity, produce methanol, fertilisers (ammonia/urea), and synthetic natural gas. 

Coal Gasification is considered a cleaner technology in comparison to coal combustion, as it allows for the removal of impurities such as sulfur and nitrogen from the gas before it is used.

About the Coal Gasification Scheme: 

• Scheme: Scheme for Promotion of New Surface Coal/Lignite Gasification Projects for Production of Syngas and Downstream Products.  
• Aim: To accelerate the conversion of coal and lignite into syngas. To boost energy independence and reduce the high cost of imported fuels and chemicals.
• Total Outlay: ₹37,500 crore.
• Target: Gasification of 75 Million Tonnes (MT) of coal/lignite, aligning with the 100 MT National Coal Gasification Mission target by 2030.
• Incentive: Up to 20% of plant and machinery costs, aimed at supporting about 25 projects.
• Disbursement: Government will disburse financial incentives in four equal instalments, each tied to specific project milestones to ensure accountability and timely execution.
• Investment Potential: Estimated to mobilise ₹2.5-3 lakh crore across the value chain.
• Employment: Expected to create around 50,000 direct and indirect jobs.
• Incentive Caps & Policy Support: To ensure competitive and fair distribution, the scheme has implemented specific caps:
  • Per Project: Max ₹5,000 crore.
  • Per Product Category: Max ₹9,000 crore (excluding Synthetic Natural Gas and Urea).
  • Per Entity/Group: Max ₹12,000 crore.
• Coal Linkage Extension: Extended to 30 years for syngas-based projects to ensure long-term, stable feedstock.
• Projects under the scheme will be selected through a transparent bidding mechanism, ensuring competitive and fair selection of implementing entities. 
• The scheme encourages the adoption of indigenous technologies for coal conversion and clean coal applications.

The scheme aims to reduce dependence on imports for high-value products like Ammonia (100 imported), Methanol (80-90% imported), and LNG (>50% imported). The initiative builds upon a smaller ₹8500 crore coal gasification scheme approved in January 2024.

• Reserves: India possesses ~401 billion tonnes of coal and ~47 billion tonnes of lignite.
• Energy Mix: Coal currently contributes over 55% of India’s total energy supply.

National Coal Gasification Mission: 

• The government launched the National Coal Gasification Mission in 2021, targeting 100 million tonnes of coal gasification by 2030 with investments of ₹4-8.5 lakh crore. 
• The present ₹37,500 crore scheme is a decisive accelerator of this mission, providing the financial framework to attract private and public-sector participation at scale.

Why does India need this Scheme?

India holds some of the world’s largest coal reserves yet remains heavily dependent on imported fossil fuels and chemical feedstocks. Coal currently contributes over 55% of India’s energy mix, yet its use has largely been confined to thermal power generation, leaving enormous value-creation potential untapped.

• Import substitution imperative: India imports roughly 82% of its crude oil requirement and 45% of its natural gas demand. Additionally, the country spends heavily on importing liquefied natural gas (LNG), urea, ammonia, and methanol. Syngas produced through domestic coal gasification can substitute all these imports, insulating the economy from global price volatility and geopolitical supply disruptions.
• Agricultural and food security linkage: India’s fertiliser sector depends on urea and ammonia, both of which can be produced domestically from syngas. Domestically produced ammonia and urea would insulate India’s agricultural input supply chain from disruptions caused by geopolitical conflicts or shipping route interruptions.
• Coal reserve monetisation: With coal reserves of ~401 billion tonnes and lignite reserves of ~47 billion tonnes, India possesses a vast resource base that currently lacks value diversification. The scheme enables monetisation of this reserve through higher-value downstream products, rather than simple combustion.
• Alignment with energy transition: As India transitions towards renewables, it cannot abruptly phase out coal without destabilising energy supply. Coal gasification offers a bridge technology. i.e., a pathway to use existing coal infrastructure in a cleaner, more productive manner while renewable capacity scales up.

Challenges in Scaling Coal Gasification in India: 

• High Ash Content in Indian Coal: Indian coal typically has an ash content of 30–35%, even after washing. High ash content significantly reduces gasification efficiency, increases operational costs, and poses a technical barrier to large-scale adoption compared to international coal quality standards.
• High Capital Costs & Financial Viability: Coal gasification plants require substantial upfront capital investment. Without government support, projects may not be financially viable on their own, which is precisely why the scheme uses a Viability Gap Funding (VGF) approach with structured incentive caps.
• Environmental and GHG Concerns: While gasification is cleaner than direct combustion, it still produces greenhouse gases, including CO₂. Large-scale gasification without Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) technology may conflict with India’s climate commitments under the Paris Agreement and its net-zero 2070 target.
• High Water Consumption: Gasification is a water-intensive process. Many coal-rich regions in India (such as parts of Jharkhand, Odisha, and Chhattisgarh) already face water scarcity, and scaling gasification in these areas without robust water management could intensify local resource stress. 
• Technology Dependence & Indigenisation Gap: India currently lacks mature, commercially viable indigenous gasification technology. Most proven technologies are imported, creating a dependency risk. The scheme’s emphasis on indigenous R&D is essential but will require sustained investment and time to bear fruit.
• Scalability & Infrastructure Integration: Gasification technology faces scalability challenges, particularly for integration with existing industrial infrastructure. Building out downstream processing capacity for syngas derivatives requires coordinated sectoral planning across fertilisers, chemicals, and energy sectors.
• Land Acquisition & Displacement: Setting up large-scale surface gasification plants in coal-bearing states often involves land acquisition in tribal and forest areas, raising social and legal challenges under the Forest Rights Act and PESA provisions.
• Competition from Renewables: As green hydrogen produced from renewable energy becomes increasingly cost-competitive, coal-based syngas may face long-term commercial pressure. The scheme must build in flexibility to integrate Carbon Capture, Utilisation, and Storage (CCUS) to remain relevant in a decarbonising economy.

The scheme represents a major shift in India’s coal policy from treating coal purely as a thermal fuel to positioning it as a platform for chemical and industrial value creation. 

Why in News?

Pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly and Company (India) Pvt. Ltd. has launched Lormalzi (donanemab) in India. This marks the country’s first approved amyloid plaque-targeting therapy for Alzheimer’s disease.

The drug has received approval from the Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) for patients with early-stage Alzheimer’s disease, including mild cognitive impairment and mild dementia. 

What is Alzheimer’s Disease?

• Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder and the most common cause of dementia. It gradually damages brain cells (atrophy of the brain), leading to a decline in memory, thinking ability, behaviour and daily functioning.
• Causes: The disease is caused by the abnormal build-up of two proteins in and around brain cells. Together, these deposits destroy neural tissue progressively.
  • First is the amyloid protein, which forms plaques between nerve cells. 
  • Second is the tau protein, which forms tangles within brain cells. 
• Symptoms: Early signs include forgetting recent events or conversations. As the disease advances, the patient develops severe memory impairment, loses the ability to perform everyday tasks, and in the final stages, loss of brain function can lead to dehydration, malnutrition, infection, and death.
• Treatment (Pre-2026): Until recently, there was no cure for Alzheimer’s disease. Some medicines (such as donepezil, rivastigmine, galantamine, and memantine) could temporarily slow the worsening of symptoms but did not address the underlying disease biology.

India’s Dementia Burden: 

The launch of Lormalzi carries particular significance given the scale of India’s Alzheimer’s challenge. 

• Dementia currently affects approximately 8.8 million people in India, with Alzheimer’s disease accounting for the majority of cases. This number is projected to nearly double to 16.9 million by 2036. 
• Estimates suggest that dementia costs the Indian economy more than ₹28,300 crore annually. The burden is expected to increase further as life expectancy rises. 

Globally, the number of people living with dementia is projected to reach 152 million by 2050.

What is Donanemab (Lormalzi)?

• Donanemab is a monoclonal antibody, a laboratory-manufactured protein that mimics the immune system’s ability to target specific threats. It belongs to the class of anti-amyloid therapies, or disease-modifying therapies (DMTs).
• Mechanism of Action: 
  • Amyloid plaques are sticky protein clumps that build up in the brains of people with Alzheimer’s disease and are believed to damage brain cells, leading to memory loss and cognitive decline. 
  • Lormalzi works by helping remove these abnormal protein deposits from the brain. Unlike conventional medicines that only manage symptoms, donanemab targets the underlying disease biology itself. 
• Administration: Lormalzi is administered as a once-monthly intravenous (IV) infusion of 350 mg. The treatment course in India is expected to last 18 months (76 weeks) in most patients. 
• Cost: Around ₹91,688 per 350 mg vial, making it one of the most expensive neurological treatments available in India. 

Who is Eligible for the Treatment?

• The therapy is approved for:
  • Patients with mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer’s disease.
  • Those in the mild dementia stage, provided amyloid pathology is confirmed through diagnostic testing.
• It is not meant for patients who have already progressed to advanced stages of the disease. While the drug can dissolve the build-up of amyloid beta protein, it cannot reverse damage that has already occurred.

Challenges Associated: 

The Indian healthcare system faces several structural barriers to making this therapy viable at scale:

• Cost: The prohibitive pricing limits access primarily to affluent patients.
• Late Diagnosis: Alzheimer’s in India is typically diagnosed at advanced stages, whereas donanemab is only effective in early stages. Early diagnosis infrastructure remains underdeveloped.
• Diagnostic Prerequisites: Confirming amyloid pathology ideally requires an amyloid PET scan, which is currently not widely available in India. The company has stated that in the absence of amyloid PET imaging, the standard approach is to treat eligible patients for 18 months.
• Genetic Screening: All eligible patients must be screened for the APOE4 gene, which adds further cost and complexity.
• Safety Monitoring: The risk of ARIA (Amyloid-Related Imaging Abnormalities), i.e., brain swelling and bleeding, requires regular MRI monitoring during treatment, demanding a high level of clinical infrastructure. 

Why in News?

A new study has shown that a modified form of CAR-T cell therapy, widely used in cancer treatment, may help suppress HIV infection for long periods without regular antiretroviral drugs. 

Researchers reported that two HIV patients maintained strong viral suppression for nearly one to two years after receiving a single dose of engineered immune cells. 

What is HIV?

• Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome is caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), an RNA virus belonging to the retrovirus family.
• HIV attacks the immune system, especially CD4 T-cells, which are crucial for fighting infections. Over time, untreated HIV weakens immunity and can lead to AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome).
• AIDS is the advanced stage of HIV infection, where the body becomes highly vulnerable to infections and cancers.

Nature of the HIV Virus: 

• HIV is a retrovirus because its genetic material is RNA instead of DNA. It uses an enzyme called reverse transcriptase to convert viral RNA into DNA inside host cells.
• The viral DNA integrates into the host genome, making the infection persistent and difficult to eliminate. 

Transmission of HIV: 

HIV spreads through contact with infected bodily fluids, such as blood, semen, vaginal fluids and breast milk. 

• Major Modes of Transmission: 
  • Unprotected sexual contact
  • Sharing contaminated needles or syringes
  • Mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding
  • Unsafe blood transfusions
• HIV is not spread through casual contact. Mosquitoes and insects cannot transmit HIV because the virus survives only in human cells and blood. 

According to global estimates, nearly 40 million people live with HIV worldwide.

Current Treatment for HIV: 

• Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) is the standard treatment for HIV. 
• Features of ART: Suppresses viral replication, maintains low or undetectable viral load and prevents progression to AIDS. 
• ART is not a cure. HIV remains hidden in viral reservoirs inside the body. If treatment stops, the virus can rebound rapidly.

Why is HIV so difficult to cure?

• HIV hides inside resting immune cells, in lymph nodes and certain tissues and organs. These hidden reservoirs remain invisible to many drugs and immune responses.
• Even when ART reduces HIV to undetectable levels, the dormant virus can reactivate later.

What is CAR-T Cell Therapy?

• Originally developed for cancer treatment, CAR-T therapy modifies a patient’s own immune cells to better attack diseased cells.
• How CAR-T Therapy Works?
  • T-cells are removed from the patient’s blood.
  • Scientists genetically engineer these T-cells in the laboratory.
  • The modified cells are equipped with special receptors called Chimeric Antigen Receptors (CARs). These engineered cells are infused back into the patient.
  • The CAR-T cells identify and destroy infected or cancerous cells.

How was CAR-T Modified for HIV?

Scientists created CAR-T cells with dual features:

• Enhanced HIV Detection: The modified cells were programmed to better identify and kill HIV-infected cells.
• Resistance to HIV Infection: The CAR-T cells were engineered to resist infection by HIV itself. This protective armour allows the engineered immune cells to survive longer and continue fighting the virus. 

Findings of the New Study: 

• A single dose of modified CAR-T cells strongly suppressed HIV in two patients. One patient maintained suppression for nearly one year. Another maintained suppression for almost two years. These patients remained off conventional HIV medication during this period.
• No serious side effects were reported. Patients who had begun HIV treatment early after infection showed better responses. Early treatment likely reduced viral reservoirs and preserved immune function.

Significance of the Study: 

• Researchers are exploring whether CAR-T therapy could become a “one-and-done” treatment. The therapy may move HIV treatment closer to a functional cure where the virus can be controlled without lifelong medicines. Patients maintain normal immune function.

Challenges and Limitations: 

Despite promising results, several challenges remain.

• Limited Study Size: Only a small number of patients were studied.
• High Cost: CAR-T therapies are currently extremely expensive and technologically complex.
• Scalability Issues: Developing personalised immune-cell therapies for millions of HIV patients remains difficult.
• Long-Term Safety: Scientists still need to assess the durability of response, long-term immune effects and the risk of relapse. 

The new CAR-T cell therapy study represents an important breakthrough in long-term HIV control and possible functional cures. By genetically enhancing the body’s own immune cells, scientists are attempting to overcome hidden viral reservoirs, one of the greatest challenges in HIV treatment. 

Practice MCQ: 

Q. With reference to Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), consider the following statements:

1. CAR-T therapy involves genetically engineering T-cells to target specific diseased cells.

2. In the recent HIV study, engineered CAR-T cells were modified to resist HIV infection themselves.

3. Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) completely eliminates latent HIV reservoirs from the body.

4. HIV is classified as a retrovirus because it uses reverse transcriptase to convert RNA into DNA.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1, 2 and 4 only

(b) 1 and 3 only

(c) 2, 3 and 4 only

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: (a)