Famine and Food Security: Causes, History and UPSC Notes (UPSC Environment)

A famine is a widespread scarcity of food caused by multiple factors including crop failure, population imbalance, government policy failure or conflict. Famines have been devastating humanitarian disasters throughout history, often accompanied by malnutrition, starvation, epidemic disease and increased mortality. Although famine deaths have fallen sharply since the 1970s globally, some regions continue to experience extreme food insecurity. Climate change, conflict and supply chain disruption are reshaping famine risk in the 21st century. For UPSC aspirants, famine is a critical GS Paper III theme on food security, disaster management and climate change.

What is famine

Famine is defined by the Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) when:

• At least 20 percent of households face extreme food gaps.
• Acute malnutrition in children under five exceeds 30 percent.
• Mortality rate exceeds 2 per 10,000 people per day.

Famine is the most severe category in the IPC framework and requires a formal declaration.

Historical context

• Every inhabited continent has experienced famine. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Eastern Europe and Asia suffered the most famine deaths.
• India had multiple major famines under colonial rule, including the 1770 Bengal Famine, the 1896-97 Indian famine and the 1943 Bengal Famine (which killed an estimated 2 to 3 million people).
• Irish Potato Famine (1845-52), Ukrainian Holodomor (1932-33), Great Chinese Famine (1959-61), Ethiopian famines (1984) are other major modern famines.
• Deaths from famine began to fall sharply globally from the 1970s because of the Green Revolution, better food distribution and international relief systems.

Modern famine hotspots

Sub-Saharan Africa continues to experience extreme cases of famine. As of 2024, the UN warned that over 20 million people are at risk across:

• South Sudan: Conflict-induced.
• Somalia: Drought combined with armed conflict.
• Sudan: Civil conflict since 2023 caused massive food insecurity.
• Yemen: Prolonged civil war.
• Ethiopia: Tigray conflict-related food insecurity.
• Gaza (2024): Declared famine conditions due to conflict.
• Nigeria: Insurgency and economic crisis.

Since 2010, Africa has been the most affected continent. Agricultural conditions have been fluctuating due to weather variability, and conflict affects food distribution. Most aid programmes now direct support towards Africa.

Future accentuating causes

• Rapidly exploding population and inequality: Humanity grew from 1 billion in 1804 to 2 billion by 1927, and from 2 billion to more than 8 billion in less than 100 years.
• Land and soil degradation at a faster pace.
• Plastic and toxic waste in soil.
• Salinisation and alkalisation.
• Climate change and global warming: Rising temperatures, shifting rainfall, extreme events.
• Changing rain patterns.
• Increasing frequency of extreme weather.
• Warming driving cropping pattern change.
• Utilisation of agricultural land for biofuel crops: Takes land away from food production.
• Green Revolution backfiring: Over-exploitation of groundwater, overuse of chemicals in Green Revolution belt.
• Disappearing biodiversity:
• Seeds: Hybrid/GM monocultures replacing indigenous, better-adapted varieties.
• Insects and birds: Pollinator decline threatens crop production.

India's food security framework

Green Revolution and its aftermath

As Norman Borlaug, the father of the Green Revolution, said, this planet can support about 4 billion people on natural productivity alone. Modern science enabled feeding 8 billion. The Green Revolution increased food production but led to environmental costs: depleted groundwater, soil degradation, loss of crop diversity.

Food wastage

According to FAO, 30 percent of the food produced never reaches stomachs because of high post-harvest losses and consumer waste. Reducing waste is as critical as producing more.

Public Distribution System (PDS)

India has the largest food subsidy programme in the world. The PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (PMGKAY) provides free rice and wheat to over 81 crore people since 2020, extended multiple times. The National Food Security Act 2013 forms the legal basis.

Buffer stock

Food Corporation of India (FCI) maintains large buffer stocks of rice and wheat. Buffer norms protect against price shocks and sudden scarcity.

Essential Commodities Act

The Essential Commodities Act 1955, as amended in 2020, allows regulation of agricultural commodities in situations such as war, famine, extraordinary price rise and natural calamity.

Minimum Support Price (MSP)

MSP for 23 crops provides price support to farmers, ensuring production stability.

Famine prevention strategies

Agricultural improvement

• Crop diversification.
• Drought-resistant and climate-resilient varieties.
• Sustainable irrigation.
• Soil health management.

Market access

• FPOs (Farmer Producer Organisations).
• E-NAM (National Agriculture Market).
• Rural road connectivity.

Government programmes

• PDS, PMGKAY.
• MGNREGA for employment and asset creation in drought-prone areas.
• PMFBY for crop insurance.
• Poshan Abhiyaan for nutrition.

Relief

• Food and nutrition provision.
• Livestock support.
• Healthcare during food crises.
• International aid coordination (World Food Programme).

Amartya Sen's perspective

Economist Amartya Sen, in his seminal work "Poverty and Famines" (1981), argued that famines are rarely caused by absolute lack of food but by failures of entitlement. People go hungry because they cannot afford to buy food even when food exists. This insight shifted global famine policy from production to access, purchasing power and democratic accountability. India, Sen argued, has not had a famine since independence partly because a free press and electoral democracy forced government response.

Climate change and future food security

• Rising temperatures reduce yields of wheat, rice and maize in many regions.
• Changes in monsoon timing and intensity affect kharif and rabi crops.
• Extreme heat and drought compound impacts.
• Water scarcity reduces irrigated area.
• IPCC AR6 (2021-22) warns of significant risks to food systems in South Asia.

Latest developments (2024-26)

• Gaza famine declaration (2024): IPC declared famine conditions in parts of Gaza, highlighting conflict-induced food crises.
• Sudan crisis (2023-25): Civil war triggered massive food insecurity; WFP and FAO warned of famine.
• International Year of Millets 2023: Promoted millets as climate-resilient nutri-cereals with India leading.
• Shree Anna initiative in India promoting millet cultivation and consumption.
• Bhartiya Prakritik Krishi Paddhati (2024): National mission on natural farming for sustainable food production.
• PMGKAY extension through 2028.
• COP29 Baku (2024): Food security and agriculture adaptation featured; India highlighted sustainable agriculture.
• UNCCD COP16 Riyadh (2024): Land degradation neutrality commitments to counter desertification-induced food insecurity.
• Global Biofuels Alliance launched at G20 2023 aims to balance food and fuel demand.

UPSC Relevance

Prelims focus

• IPC famine classification.
• Historical famines: Bengal 1770, 1943, Great Chinese Famine, Irish Potato Famine.
• Amartya Sen's entitlement theory.
• National Food Security Act 2013, PMGKAY, PDS.
• Essential Commodities Act 1955 (amended 2020).
• IYoM 2023 and Shree Anna.

Mains focus (GS III)

Typical question framings evaluate famine prevention strategies, the Green Revolution's environmental cost, the role of free press and democracy, and climate-induced food security challenges. Strong answers integrate Amartya Sen, specific famines, NFSA provisions, climate science and international frameworks.

Linkages

Famine connects to SDG 1 (no poverty), SDG 2 (zero hunger), SDG 13 (climate action), India's updated NDCs after COP29, UNCCD commitments, the Paris Agreement, the Sendai Framework, the Global Biofuels Alliance and the International Year of Millets 2023.