Indian National Congress: History & Role in Freedom

Indian National Congress: History & Role in Freedom

The Indian National Congress (INC), founded in 1885, was the principal political organisation that led India’s freedom struggle against British colonial rule. From its moderate beginnings as a forum for educated Indians to voice grievances to its transformation into a mass movement under Mahatma Gandhi, the Congress shaped modern India’s political identity. For UPSC, INC history is central to Modern Indian History — covering the Moderate phase, Extremist phase, Gandhian era, and major sessions.

Formation of the Indian National Congress

The INC was founded on 28 December 1885 at the Gowalia Tank Maidan (now August Kranti Maidan) in Bombay. Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant, is credited as the primary founder. The first session was attended by 72 delegates from across India.

Key Facts About Formation

• First President: Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee (a Calcutta barrister)
• Founder: Allan Octavian Hume (though Indian leaders played significant roles)
• First session venue: Bombay (28–31 December 1885)
• Initial character: A loyal opposition — seeking reforms within the British system, not independence
• Membership: Primarily English-educated professionals — lawyers, journalists, teachers

Why Was the Congress Founded?

Multiple theories explain the founding:

Safety Valve Theory: Proposed by Lala Lajpat Rai, this argues that Hume created the Congress as a “safety valve” to channel growing Indian discontent into a controlled, moderate outlet — preventing a potential revolution. Hume’s private correspondence supports this interpretation.

Nationalist Theory: Indian leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendranath Banerjee, and others were already organising political activity. The Congress formalised and united pre-existing regional movements — the Indian Association (Calcutta), Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, Madras Mahajana Sabha, and Bombay Presidency Association.

The truth likely combines both — Hume provided the organisational framework, but Indian political consciousness was already maturing.

Moderate Phase (1885–1905)

The early Congress was dominated by moderates who believed in constitutional methods — petitions, prayers, and protests within the law. They had faith in British liberalism and justice, believing that once the British understood Indian grievances, they would grant reforms.

Prominent Moderate Leaders

• Dadabhai Naoroji (“Grand Old Man of India”): Authored “Poverty and Un-British Rule in India”; developed the Drain of Wealth theory — arguing that British economic policies systematically drained India’s wealth to Britain
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale: Regarded by Gandhi as his political guru; founded the Servants of India Society (1905); advocated for education, sanitation, and moderate reform
• Surendranath Banerjee (“Indian Burke”): Founded the Indian Association (1876); organised the Indian National Conference before joining the Congress
• Pherozeshah Mehta: Bombay’s leading political figure; dominant in Congress organisation
• R.C. Dutt: Economic historian who documented British exploitation in “The Economic History of India”

Methods of Moderates

Achievements and Limitations

Achievements:

• Created a national political platform uniting Indians across regions
• Developed the economic critique of colonial rule (Drain theory)
• Trained a generation of political leaders
• Indian Councils Act, 1892 (limited legislative expansion) partly resulted from Congress pressure

Limitations:

• Narrow social base — upper caste, English-educated elite
• “Political mendicancy” — begging the British for rights
• Extremely slow progress frustrated younger leaders
• Failed to mobilise the masses

Lord Curzon dismissed the Congress as representing “a microscopic minority.” This criticism, while partisan, captured a real limitation of the moderate approach.

Extremist Phase (1905–1920)

Growing frustration with moderate methods and the Partition of Bengal (1905) by Lord Curzon radicalised Indian politics. A new generation of leaders — called Extremists or Assertive Nationalists — demanded Swaraj (self-rule) and used more assertive methods.

Partition of Bengal (1905)

Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal ostensibly for administrative efficiency but effectively along religious lines (Muslim-majority East Bengal and Hindu-majority West Bengal). This was seen as a divide-and-rule strategy. The partition triggered:

• Swadeshi Movement: Boycott of British goods, promotion of Indian products
• National education: Institutions like the National Council of Education (Bengal National College) established
• Mass mobilisation: For the first time, politics went beyond the elite to include students, workers, and some peasants
• Artistic and cultural renaissance: Songs like “Vande Mataram” (from Bankim Chandra’s Anandamath) became symbols of resistance

Prominent Extremist Leaders

• Bal Gangadhar Tilak (“Lokmanya”): “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it”; used Ganesh Chaturthi and Shivaji festivals for political mobilisation; founded Kesari and Maratha newspapers
• Bipin Chandra Pal: Powerful orator; part of the Lal-Bal-Pal trio
• Lala Lajpat Rai (“Punjab Kesari”): Led Swadeshi movement in Punjab; died from injuries sustained during a lathi-charge against the Simon Commission (1928)
• Aurobindo Ghosh: Initially a radical nationalist; later turned spiritual philosopher; edited Vande Mataram journal

Surat Split (1907)

The Congress split at the Surat Session (1907) over the election of the president. Moderates (led by Pherozeshah Mehta) and Extremists (led by Tilak) could not agree on methods and goals. The Extremists were expelled.

Reunification came in 1916 at the Lucknow Session — the Congress reunited and simultaneously signed the Lucknow Pact with the Muslim League, agreeing on a joint scheme for constitutional reforms and separate electorates for Muslims.

Methods Comparison: Moderates vs Extremists

Gandhian Era (1920–1947)

Mahatma Gandhi transformed the Congress from an elite organisation into a mass movement. His entry into Indian politics fundamentally changed the methods, scale, and social base of the freedom struggle.

Gandhi’s Arrival and Early Campaigns

Gandhi returned to India from South Africa in 1915. His early Indian campaigns established his methods:

• Champaran Satyagraha (1917): Against the exploitative indigo plantation system in Bihar — his first civil disobedience in India
• Kheda Satyagraha (1918): For tax relief to drought-affected farmers in Gujarat
• Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): Supported textile workers’ demand for wage increase

Major Movements Under Gandhi

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22) Launched in response to the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919) and the Khilafat issue. Indians boycotted British courts, schools, councils, and foreign cloth. Thousands gave up government titles and positions. The movement was called off after the Chauri Chaura incident (1922) — where a mob killed 22 policemen in violence Gandhi couldn’t endorse.

Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–34) Began with the Dandi March (Salt March) — Gandhi walked 241 miles from Sabarmati to Dandi to break the salt law. The movement targeted specific unjust laws. It was broader than Non-Cooperation — including tax refusal, picketing of liquor shops, and forest law violations. The Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931) temporarily halted the movement.

Quit India Movement (1942) The most radical Congress movement. Gandhi’s call to the British: “Quit India.” His call to Indians: “Do or Die.” Launched on 8 August 1942 at the Bombay session (Gowalia Tank). The entire Congress leadership was immediately arrested. Leaderless masses erupted in a spontaneous revolt — sabotage of railways, telegraph lines, and government buildings. The movement was brutally suppressed but demonstrated that British rule was no longer tenable.

Congress Sessions: Key Milestones

Lahore Session (1929): Purna Swaraj

The Lahore Session under Jawaharlal Nehru as president was a turning point. The Congress:

• Declared Purna Swaraj (complete independence) as its goal — replacing the earlier demand for dominion status
• Authorised the Civil Disobedience Movement
• Declared 26 January 1930 as Independence Day (Purna Swaraj Diwas) — celebrated annually until actual independence; this date was later chosen for Republic Day (1950)

Congress and Social Reform

The Congress wasn’t merely a political organisation. It played a significant role in social transformation:

• Hindu-Muslim unity: Gandhi’s support for the Khilafat Movement; Lucknow Pact
• Abolition of untouchability: Gandhi’s campaigns for Dalit rights; the Poona Pact (1932) with Dr. B.R. Ambedkar on reserved seats
• Women’s participation: Sarojini Naidu, Kasturba Gandhi, Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kripalani — women played vital roles in all major movements
• Constructive programme: Khadi promotion, village industries, basic education, sanitation
• Socialist ideas: Jawaharlal Nehru and the Congress Socialist Party (formed 1934) pushed the Congress towards economic radicalism

Congress and Constitutional Development

The Congress participated in (and sometimes boycotted) the constitutional reforms process:

• Indian Councils Act, 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms): Introduced separate electorates — Congress opposed this
• Government of India Act, 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms): Introduced dyarchy — Congress participated reluctantly
• Simon Commission (1927): Congress boycotted (all-white commission)
• Round Table Conferences (1930–32): Gandhi attended the Second RTC
• Government of India Act, 1935: Congress won provincial elections (1937) and formed governments in 8 of 11 provinces
• Constituent Assembly: Congress dominated the Assembly that drafted India’s Constitution

Independence Movement

Quit India Movement

Frequently Asked Questions