GS Paper 4 practice questions for UPSC Mains 2026.

• The DM should not proceed: administering an untested supplement under administrative authority is an unacknowledged experiment without any of an experiment's safeguards.
• Real consent is near-impossible where a dependent, unwell community faces a request carrying the authority of the state.
• Vulnerability triggers additional safeguards in research ethics, not fewer — the 'nothing to lose' instinct inverts the principle.
• Mineral supplementation is not risk-free; excess selenium, fluoride or iron causes serious toxicity, especially in undernourished populations.
• Justice is breached when a group bears experimental risk because it is poor, remote and administratively reachable.
• The correct route is an institutional ethics committee, ICMR guidelines and a registered trial — not district discretion.
• Administrative power should be used to bring specialists, diagnosis, water and nutrition, which need no experiment.

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• The zero-sum framing is wrong: torture yields unreliable intelligence, mass surveillance buries signal, and alienated communities stop sharing information.
• The genuine tensions are speed vs process, secrecy vs accountability, profiling vs individual guilt, and emergency powers that never lapse.
• The Puttaswamy proportionality test — legality, legitimate aim, necessity, proportionality and procedural safeguards — is the working instrument.
• Sunset clauses matter most, because extraordinary powers taken in a crisis are rarely surrendered afterwards.
• India lacks parliamentary oversight of its intelligence agencies, which is the main institutional gap.
• Low UAPA conviction rates alongside long pre-trial detention show the problem is enforcement, not doctrine.
• D. K. Basu custodial guidelines and judicial review of interception are the concrete safeguards.

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• Ambedkar's 'Grammar of Anarchy' warning came on 25 November 1949, in his closing Constituent Assembly address.
• The warning was conditional: abandon agitation *because* constitutional methods are now available — a clause most answers omit.
• The modern dilemma arises precisely where that condition weakens, through unresponsive legislatures or slow courts.
• Rawls's tests — exhaustion of lawful means, openness, non-violence, substantial injustice, acceptance of penalty, proportionality — supply workable criteria.
• Accepting the legal penalty is what demonstrates fidelity to the legal order rather than rejection of it.
• The state's duty is to protect dissent while policing disorder; conflating the two is the standard failure.
• Keeping constitutional channels fast and credible is the real prophylactic against street politics.

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• Trusteeship converts ownership into stewardship — the wealthy hold surplus in trust and answer for its use.
• Public office already is a trust in law, so the doctrine transfers almost exactly to administration.
• Discretion is trust property: treating a transfer, licence or tender as a personal favour is the root of administrative corruption.
• Gandhi's talisman turns the doctrine into an operational test at the moment of decision.
• Social audit and proactive RTI disclosure are trusteeship in institutional form; MGNREGA is the clearest Indian instance.
• Means and ends are both owed to the beneficiary, so a fair outcome by unfair process still breaches the trust.
• The Ambedkarite criticism that trusteeship relies on voluntary conscience lands against the economic doctrine, far less against the administrative one, which has legal enforcement behind it.

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• The line is Hotspur's in Henry IV Part 1, Act V Scene 2 — a rebel justifying revolt, and he loses; Shakespeare is exhibiting the maxim, not endorsing it.
• Intent genuinely matters: mens rea and the doctrine of double effect both grade conduct by it.
• Intent is self-certified and unfalsifiable, making it the weakest available check on power.
• The maxim licenses the ends-justify-means slide into encounter killings and fabricated files by sincere officers.
• Gandhi's convertibility of means and ends is the sharpest counter: instruments become the order they build.
• A defensible decision must pass all three of intent, means and consequences.
• Because intent cannot be inspected, recorded reasons on the file are what stand in for it.

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• Beneficence concerns the content of the decision; paternalism concerns who gets to make it — a doctor can be right on the first and wrong on the second.
• The decisive act was persuading the family and using them to move the patient, not persuading the patient.
• Soft paternalism corrects a defect in voluntariness or information and is often defensible; hard paternalism overrides a competent informed choice and is presumptively wrong.
• Nothing suggests the patient lacked capacity, so there was no defect for the doctor to correct.
• 'Reluctantly' records the absence of freedom, and consent must be free as well as informed.
• Samira Kohli v. Prabha Manchanda (2008) held consent must be real and specific, rejecting relatives' substituted judgement for a competent adult.
• In the Indian context family decision-making disproportionately displaces women's own choices, making the breach structural.

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• Drucker's distinction: efficiency is doing things right, effectiveness is doing the right things; productivity is the product of both.
• Efficient pursuit of the wrong objective is the more dangerous failure because internal metrics report success throughout.
• Toilets without water and enrolment without learning are the standard Indian illustrations of the gap.
• Administration is biased towards efficiency because it is measurable, attributable and defensible.
• Goodhart's law explains why disposal-rate and fund-utilisation targets reliably produce those numbers and little else.
• Pair every efficiency metric with an effectiveness metric so neither can be gamed in isolation.
• The relationship is a hierarchy, not a compromise: choose the right objective first, then pursue it efficiently.

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• The conflict is between two duties of the same officer, not between rules and compassion.
• Closing a remote non-compliant school moves children out of education rather than into a better school.
• The burden of literal enforcement is regressive, falling on the poorest and most remote children the RTE Act was written for.
• Non-enforcement also fails: safety standards protect children, and selective waivers become rent-seeking.
• Triage is the key move — structural safety, water, toilets and child protection are non-negotiable; playgrounds and record formats can be sequenced.
• Many deficiencies are the state's own default, and penalising a school for unfilled teacher posts is unjust.
• Principled discretion means deviating openly, for recorded reasons, against a deadline.

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• The descriptive claim is largely accurate; the useful question is why it happens and whether it is defensible.
• Realism grounds the subordination in anarchy and the state's primary duty of survival, as Morgenthau argued.
• Constructivism shows interests are not fixed — the slave-trade abolition and the chemical-weapons taboo were built by normative argument.
• Reputation is itself a strategic asset, so ethics and interest converge more often than the dichotomy suggests.
• India illustrates both sides: anti-apartheid leadership and Vaccine Maitri alongside post-2022 Russian oil purchases and Ukraine abstentions.
• That states lie about compliance rather than announcing indifference is evidence that norms constrain.
• Discipline comes from consistency, honesty about the reason, a few genuine red lines and proportionality.

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• The decisive fact is not empathy but that the teacher tutors the PA's own daughter — a conflict of interest.
• A PA has no locus in transfer decisions, so the channel itself corrupts the process regardless of merits.
• Article 14 arbitrariness: a benefit available only to those with access to the DM's office is by definition unequal.
• Empathy must be impartial to be a virtue; feeling for the person in the room while ignoring identical absent claims is proximity bias.
• The genuine remedy is a general district policy on teacher continuity for children with disabilities under the RPwD Act, 2016.
• The child's real need is assessment, an individualised education plan and a special educator, not one teacher's private tuition.
• The operative test: would this decision have been taken for a family with no connection to the DM's office?

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• The claim is Peter Singer's, from 'Famine, Affluence and Morality' (1972), resting on the principle that we must prevent bad outcomes when the cost is not comparably important.
• The drowning-child case shows distance and the presence of other bystanders are not morally relevant differences.
• Duty is owed and claimable, its breach blameworthy; charity is supererogatory, praiseworthy to do but not wrong to omit.
• Reclassification changes the moral position of both parties: the beneficiary becomes a claim-holder, the non-giver a wrongdoer.
• Capacity already generates obligation in rescue duties and in the special obligations of doctors and public servants.
• Rights-based welfare exists because dignity requires claims rather than favours dependent on mood.
• The demandingness objection is met by the moderate form the question itself states — giving without significantly affecting one's own stability.

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