“"Fortune favours the brave." In the light of this statement, discuss Machiavelli's concepts of 'virtue' and 'fortune'.”
Political Science & International Relations · UPSC Mains Optional
Thirteen years of PSIR, dissected.
The official PSIR papers from 2014 to 2026, read part by part: which syllabus themes carry the marks, which thinkers keep coming back, and real questions quoted with their year and marks. Use it to answer the question every PSIR aspirant asks: what will they ask me?
- 13
- years of papers (2014 to 2026)
- 728
- sub-questions across Paper I & II
- 2
- papers · 4 syllabus sections
- 17
- thinkers asked in 2+ Paper I papers
Year-wise archive
Every PSIR paper from 2014 to 2026.
Each paper has 8 questions in two sections, 28 parts in all, and you attempt 5: Questions 1 and 5 are compulsory, plus three more with at least one from each section. Click a year to jump to real questions from that year's papers.
2026P1 · 8Q P2 · 8QMachiavelli, Laski, Wollstonecraft · India-Maldives, Kachchatheevu.2025P1 · 8Q P2 · 8QPopper, Locke, Arendt · strategic autonomy, Pahalgam.2024P1 · 8Q P2 · 8QPlato's Forms, M.N. Roy · Asian century, Israel-Hamas war.2023P1 · 8Q P2 · 8QFoucault, Hobbes, Aurobindo · QUAD, Afghanistan after August 2021.2022P1 · 8Q P2 · 8QHobbes, Ambedkar and Rawls · Russia-Ukraine crisis and EU energy.2021P1 · 8Q P2 · 8QAristotle, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan · Taliban takeover, QUAD.2020P1 · 8Q P2 · 8QGreek and Rawlsian justice · India-China LAC standoff.2019P1 · 8Q P2 · 8QArendt, Gramsci, communitarians · Indo-Pacific, OBOR.2018P1 · 8Q P2 · 8QLocke, Ambedkar, Machiavelli · America First, SAARC.2017P1 · 8Q P2 · 8QRawls, Aristotle, Ambedkar · Belt and Road, NPT.2016P1 · 8Q P2 · 8QFeminist theory of the State, Arendt · Brexit, Pathankot.2015P1 · 8Q P2 · 8QPlato and Popper, Habermas · river water disputes, NPT and CTBT.2014P1 · 8Q P2 · 8QMill, Arendt, Machiavelli · Ukraine crisis, SAARC.
Official papers · download
UPSC PSIR question papers, as official PDFs.
Official files from upsc.gov.in, 2014 to 2026. Each paper is a 3-hour attempt for 250 marks: five of its eight questions. Use them to time full practice sessions.
Every link opens the paper on upsc.gov.in. Each paper is printed in Hindi and English.
Topic weight · 2015-2025
The ten biggest themes in each syllabus section.
Each bar is the share of a section's marks that UPSC set on that theme across the 11 papers from 2015 to 2025 (200 marks per section per paper, 2,200 in all). A part that covers two themes counts under both. In three of the four sections the ten rows add up to well under 100%, because the rest of the marks went to topics outside these themes, such as the UN and global institutions in Paper II Section A.
Paper I · Section A
Political Theory
- Western Political Thinkers22%11 of 11 papers · 475 marks · Plato to Arendt
- Indian Political Thought13%11 of 11 papers · 295 marks · Kautilya, Buddhist tradition, Gandhi, Ambedkar, M.N. Roy
- Political Ideologies13%11 of 11 papers · 285 marks · liberalism, Marxism, socialism, fascism, feminism
- Rights, Liberty & Equality12%11 of 11 papers · 265 marks · human rights, liberty, equality, affirmative action
- Justice9%10 of 11 papers · 190 marks · Rawls, communitarians, entitlement theory
- Political Theory: Meaning & Approaches9%11 of 11 papers · 190 marks · behavioural, post-behavioural, normative, decline and resurgence
- Democracy8%11 of 11 papers · 165 marks · deliberative, representative, elite theory
- Power, Authority & Legitimacy7%8 of 11 papers · 150 marks · power, hegemony, legitimacy
- State & Sovereignty7%10 of 11 papers · 145 marks · liberal, neo-liberal, pluralist, post-colonial, feminist
- Multiculturalism & Identity2%4 of 11 papers · 50 marks · cultural relativism, multicultural rights
Paper I · Section B
Indian Government & Politics
- Fundamental Rights & Judiciary11%11 of 11 papers · 250 marks · judicial review, basic structure, rights
- Panchayati Raj & Local Governance10%11 of 11 papers · 210 marks · 73rd and 74th Amendments, Gram Sabha, PESA
- Indian National Movement8%11 of 11 papers · 180 marks · Gandhian, Dalit, Marxist, socialist perspectives
- Party System & Coalition7%9 of 11 papers · 145 marks · one-party dominance to coalitions
- Indian Federalism5%7 of 11 papers · 115 marks · cooperative, asymmetric, GST
- Caste & Politics5%7 of 11 papers · 105 marks · caste mobilisation, caste census
- Elections & Electoral Reforms5%5 of 11 papers · 105 marks · state funding, Election Commission, delimitation
- Centre-State Relations5%6 of 11 papers · 105 marks · Governor, Inter-State Council
- Communalism & Identity Politics4%6 of 11 papers · 95 marks · religion and electoral politics
- Regionalism & Regional Parties4%6 of 11 papers · 80 marks · regional parties, new states
Paper II · Section A
Comparative Politics & IR
- Parties, Pressure Groups & Movements10%11 of 11 papers · 215 marks · parties, pressure groups, new social movements
- Globalization8%11 of 11 papers · 185 marks · debates, Global South, MNCs
- Security Studies8%9 of 11 papers · 170 marks · nuclear deterrence, collective security, human security
- Comparative Methods & Approaches6%11 of 11 papers · 130 marks · political economy, interpretive, comparative method
- Realism5%7 of 11 papers · 105 marks · classical, neo-realism, offensive and defensive
- Marxist & World-Systems Approaches5%6 of 11 papers · 105 marks · Marxist IR, Wallerstein
- Liberalism, Idealism & Functionalism4%7 of 11 papers · 95 marks · idealism, functionalism, complex interdependence
- Regime Types & Democratisation4%5 of 11 papers · 85 marks · democracy promotion, democratic backsliding
- State in Comparative Perspective4%6 of 11 papers · 80 marks · post-colonial and post-modern state
- Feminist IR4%5 of 11 papers · 80 marks · feminist critique, UNSC Resolution 1325
Paper II · Section B
India & the World
- South Asia16%10 of 11 papers · 350 marks · SAARC, Afghanistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh
- India-China12%10 of 11 papers · 265 marks · LAC, Belt and Road, Asian century
- Nuclear policy7%10 of 11 papers · 155 marks · NPT, CTBT, no first use
- India-USA6%8 of 11 papers · 130 marks · strategic partnership, BECA
- UN reform & India's UNSC claim5%8 of 11 papers · 120 marks · permanent seat, peacekeeping
- Non-alignment4%6 of 11 papers · 90 marks · NAM then and now
- India-Pakistan3%4 of 11 papers · 60 marks · Pathankot, Indus Waters
- Look East / Act East2%4 of 11 papers · 50 marks · Look East to Act East
- Belt and Road / CPEC2%2 of 11 papers · 40 marks · 2017 and 2019
- Indo-Pacific2%3 of 11 papers · 35 marks · 2019, 2024, 2025
Thinker frequency · Paper I, 2014-2025
Seventeen thinkers Paper I keeps coming back to.
Each number counts the Paper I papers from 2014 to 2025 (12 in all) with at least one question that names the thinker or directly examines his doctrine, such as Gram Swaraj for Gandhi. Marx, Rawls and Gandhi each appear in 9 of the 12. The 2026 paper named Laski, Machiavelli, Ambedkar, Mill, Wollstonecraft, Gandhi, Kautilya and Marcuse.
- Marx9×
- Rawls9×
- Gandhi9×
- Ambedkar6×
- Aristotle5×
- J.S. Mill5×
- Hobbes4×
- Locke4×
- Machiavelli4×
- Hannah Arendt4×
- Sri Aurobindo4×
- Plato3×
- Gramsci3×
- Kautilya3×
- Karl Popper2×
- Nehru2×
- M.N. Roy2×
Actual PYQs
Twenty-six real questions, two from every year.
Quoted from the official papers with question number and marks: one from Paper I and one from Paper II for each year from 2014 to 2026. Map each one back to the theme it tests.
— 2026 —
“Critically evaluate the important factors of India-Maldives relations on the eve of sixty years of diplomatic ties between the two countries.”
— 2025 —
“Explain how Rawls used the liberal and egalitarian perspective to develop his concept of distributive justice.”
“India continues to invoke its time-tested policy of strategic autonomy vis-à-vis both the United States of America and Russia by rejecting US' offer of mediation on Kashmir issue and by refusing to criticize Russia in its ongoing war against Ukraine. Comment.”
— 2024 —
“Gram Sabha in the Panchayati Raj system is a forum which gives expression to the collective wisdom, aspirations and the will of the people. Comment.”
“Does the idea of the 21st century as 'Asian century' continue to remain feasible given the growing friction between India and China?”
— 2023 —
“Rawls' idea of the 'liberal self' is too individualistic. Explain, in this context, the communitarian critique of Rawls' theory of justice.”
“Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD) performs an important role in India's strategic balancing act to withstand the dominance of China in Asia. Discuss.”
— 2022 —
“The Doctrine of Basic Structure of the Constitution has enhanced the power of judicial review of the Supreme Court. Examine.”
“Russian-Ukraine crisis has cast a dark shadow on the energy needs of the member states of the European Union (EU). Comment.”
— 2021 —
“Marx's concept of 'alienation' is an essential part of the reality in capitalism. Explain.”
“What is 'complex interdependence'? Discuss the role of transnational actors in the international system.”
— 2020 —
“Does the functioning of the federalism in India tend to make it appear as a unitary state in practice?”
“Explain the defence and foreign policy options of India to address the challenges emerging out of the current India-China standoff at the Line of Actual Control (LAC).”
— 2019 —
“M. K. Gandhi's concept of Swaraj.”
“How is India responding to the idea of Indo-Pacific?”
— 2018 —
“Discuss Ambedkar's ideas on 'annihilation of caste'.”
“Would you agree that the on-going debates on international environmental politics continue to be marred by a new North-South ideological divide over historical responsibility and developmental model? Illustrate your answer with suitable examples.”
— 2017 —
“State subvention/funding may be an effective instrument in strengthening electoral democracy in India.”
“Is Realist Approach the best method to understand International Relations? Examine this in the context of Classical Realism.”
— 2016 —
“Discuss Feminist theory of the State.”
“Discuss the shift of India's foreign policy towards Pakistan in the light of Pathankot incident.”
— 2015 —
“Compare and contrast the views of Kautilya and Machiavelli on Statecraft.”
“River water disputes are emerging as a major source of irritation between India and its neighbours. Identify the sources of conflicts and suggest the remedial measures.”
— 2014 —
“Examine the debates on the appointment procedure of judges to the higher judiciary in India.”
“"Ukraine crisis is a product of power politics and geo-politics." Comment.”
How to answer
The four-move template that scores in PSIR.
Every PSIR answer rewards a specific shape — definition, debate, evidence, position. Memorise the moves, not the model answers.
- 01
Define the contested term precisely.
PSIR examiners reward definitional clarity. Lead with a one-line definition that carries a qualifier ("liberal democracy, understood here as a procedural rather than substantive arrangement…"). Never the dictionary line.
- 02
Sketch the debate — three positions, named.
PSIR is a discipline of contested positions. Name at least three schools / thinkers / traditions with their core disagreement. This is what separates an analytical answer from a descriptive one.
- 03
Ground the debate in evidence.
One concrete policy (GST Council), one landmark judgement (Kesavananda Bharati, Shreya Singhal), one international example (Russia-Ukraine, QUAD). Evidence does not replace the argument, but an answer that stays purely theoretical is hard to score well on.
- 04
Take a defensible position.
PSIR doesn't reward neutrality. End with a defended stance that acknowledges the strongest counter. Senior faculty will tell you exactly how to do this on one of your mentor calls.
Booklist
Fifteen books and a daily paper, in the order we assign them.
Not a library. A sequence. "Must read" marks the non-negotiables our PSIR Drona batch reads before October.
| Book | Author | Covers | Tier |
|---|---|---|---|
| An Introduction to Political Theory | OP Gauba | Paper I · Section A | Must |
| Political Theory: An Introduction | Rajeev Bhargava & Ashok Acharya (eds.) | Paper I · Section A | Reference |
| Western Political Thought | Shefali Jha | Paper I · Section A | Must |
| A History of Political Thought: Plato to Marx | Mukherjee & Ramaswamy | Paper I · Section A | Reference |
| Foundations of Indian Political Thought | V.R. Mehta | Paper I · Section A | Must |
| Indian Political Thought: Themes and Thinkers | Himanshu Roy & M.P. Singh (eds.) | Paper I · Section A | Reference |
| Indian Government & Politics | B.L. Fadia | Paper I · Section B | Must |
| Politics in India | Rajni Kothari | Paper I · Section B | Reference |
| India's Struggle for Independence | Bipan Chandra et al. | Paper I · Section B | Must |
| Comparative Politics | J.C. Johari | Paper II · Section A | Must |
| The Globalization of World Politics | Baylis, Smith & Owens (eds.) | Paper II · Section A | Must |
| International Relations Theories: Discipline and Diversity | Tim Dunne, Milja Kurki & Steve Smith (eds.) | Paper II · Section A | Reference |
| India's Foreign Policy since Independence | V.P. Dutt | Paper II · Section B | Must |
| Does the Elephant Dance? | David M. Malone | Paper II · Section B | Must |
| Choices: Inside the Making of India's Foreign Policy | Shivshankar Menon | Paper II · Section B | Reference |
| The Hindu / The Indian Express | Daily newspapers | Current affairs | Must |
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