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PSIR Optional · Paper II

PSIR Paper 2: Complete Topic-Wise Guide for Comparative Politics and International Relations

All eight syllabus sections of Paper II, what each one covers, how often UPSC asks from it, and what to read. Then a preparation plan, practice questions and your next steps.

See the section mapPaper 1 guidePaper 2 PYQ analysis

Compiled by Rahul Puri, PSIR Faculty, Anantam IAS · Updated September 2026

Section map

Where Paper II's questions come from

Questions per year for each syllabus section, counted from the official papers of 2014 to 2025. The bar runs from 0 to 14, the most one section can carry in a year: the solid part is the lowest year, the lighter part the highest. Pick a section to jump to it.

01Comparative PoliticsComparative Politics – Nature and Approaches0–2 questions a year02Comparative PoliticsThe State in Comparative Perspective0–1 questions a year03Comparative PoliticsPolitics of Representation and Participation1–4 questions a year04Comparative PoliticsGlobalisation0–2 questions a year05Comparative PoliticsStudy of Select Countries0 questions a year06International RelationsInternational Relations Theory2–7 questions a year07International RelationsIndia's Foreign Policy9–13 questions a year Highest yield08International RelationsGlobal Issues and International Organisations5–9 questions a year
Also on this page:How to preparePractice questionsWhat to do nextFull PSIR weightage analysis

01

Section 1 · Comparative Politics

Comparative Politics – Nature and Approaches

PYQ frequency

0–2 questions a year

What Is Comparative Politics?Major Approaches

What Is Comparative Politics?

Comparative politics is the systematic study of political systems by comparing their structures, processes, and outcomes. It moves beyond describing a single country's politics to identifying patterns, testing hypotheses, and building generalisable knowledge about how political systems work.

The key distinction is between comparative government (comparing formal institutions – constitutions, legislatures, executives) and comparative politics (comparing political behaviour, processes, and outcomes more broadly, including informal power structures, political culture, and civil society).

Major Approaches

Structural-Functionalism (Almond and Powell): Every political system performs certain functions (political socialisation, interest articulation, interest aggregation, rule-making, rule application, rule adjudication). Comparing how different systems perform these functions reveals similarities across seemingly different regimes. Criticism: too focused on stability, inadequate for explaining change and conflict.

Systems Theory (David Easton): Politics as a system of inputs (demands and supports), conversion processes, and outputs (policies and decisions), with a feedback loop. Useful for modelling but criticised for ignoring power asymmetries and treating the state as a black box.

Political Economy Approach: Examines the interaction between political power and economic structures. Combines Marxist analysis of class with institutional analysis of the state. Particularly relevant for understanding the divergent development trajectories of countries like China, India, Brazil, and the USA.

New Institutionalism: Institutions matter – they shape political behaviour, constrain choices, and create path dependencies. Three variants: rational choice institutionalism, historical institutionalism, and sociological institutionalism. This approach dominates contemporary comparative politics scholarship.

02

Section 2 · Comparative Politics

The State in Comparative Perspective

PYQ frequency

0–1 questions a year

The Developed StateThe Developing StatePost-Colonial State Theory

The Developed State

Characterised by institutionalised democratic governance, rule of law, accountability mechanisms, and high state capacity (the ability to implement policies and collect taxes). Key debates: the welfare state versus the neoliberal state, the impact of globalisation on state sovereignty, democratic deficit in the European Union.

The Developing State

Post-colonial states in Asia, Africa, and Latin America face distinct challenges: weak institutional capacity, ethnic and religious fragmentation, economic dependence, and the tension between state-led development and market-driven growth. Key concepts: the developmental state (the East Asian model – Japan, South Korea, Singapore), the predatory state (kleptocracy, rent-seeking), the fragile or failed state.

Post-Colonial State Theory

Hamza Alavi's "overdeveloped state" thesis argues that post-colonial states inherited a bureaucratic-military apparatus designed by colonial powers for extraction, not governance. This apparatus was disproportionately powerful relative to the nascent bourgeoisie and working class, creating a state that served its own interests rather than those of any social class. This framework is particularly relevant for understanding Pakistan, Bangladesh, and several African states.

03

Section 3 · Comparative Politics

Politics of Representation and Participation

PYQ frequency

1–4 questions a year

Political PartiesElectoral SystemsPressure Groups and Civil Society

Political Parties

Duverger's classification (cadre parties, mass parties, catch-all parties) remains the starting point. Contemporary additions include cartel parties (Katz and Mair) – parties that collude to maintain their access to state resources – and movement parties (parties that emerge from social movements, like AAP in India or Podemos in Spain).

Compare: the two-party system (USA, UK), multi-party systems (India, France), and one-party systems (China). The relationship between party systems and electoral systems (Duverger's Law: first-past-the-post tends toward two parties; proportional representation supports multi-party systems).

Electoral Systems

First-past-the-post (UK, India, USA), proportional representation (most European democracies), mixed systems (Germany, Japan). Each system has implications for representation, governability, and the relationship between votes and seats.

Pressure Groups and Civil Society

Interest groups, advocacy groups, and social movements operate differently in different political systems. Compare: the lobbying system in the USA (formalised, legalised, institutionalised), corporatism in European welfare states (structured negotiation between labour, capital, and the state), and the more informal, movement-based pressure politics in India.

04

Section 4 · Comparative Politics

Globalisation

PYQ frequency

0–2 questions a year

Impact on the StateGlobalisation and DemocracyAnti-Globalisation and Populism

Impact on the State

Globalisation challenges the Westphalian concept of state sovereignty in multiple dimensions: economic (global capital flows, MNCs, trade agreements constrain domestic policy), political (international norms, R2P, human rights regimes), cultural (homogenisation versus hybridisation), and technological (cyber threats, digital governance, AI).

The "retreat of the state" thesis (Susan Strange) argues that globalisation has fundamentally weakened state power. Counter-arguments: the state has adapted rather than retreated – it regulates globalisation, negotiates trade agreements, and remains the primary provider of security.

Globalisation and Democracy

Key tension: democratic accountability operates at the national level, but the forces shaping people's lives increasingly operate at the global level. Dani Rodrik's "globalisation trilemma" – you cannot simultaneously have deep economic integration, national sovereignty, and democratic politics; one of the three must give – is a powerful analytical framework for PYQs on this topic.

Anti-Globalisation and Populism

The backlash against globalisation – Brexit, Trump, the rise of nationalist-populist movements across Europe – represents one of the most significant political developments of the 21st century. Key themes: the "left behind" (communities that lost from trade liberalisation), cultural anxiety (immigration, identity), the crisis of centrist politics, and the future of the liberal international order.

05

Section 5 · Comparative Politics

Study of Select Countries

PYQ frequency

0 questions a year

Country studies are not in the current syllabus

United KingdomUnited States of AmericaChina

United Kingdom

Political System: Constitutional monarchy with parliamentary sovereignty. The Prime Minister is head of government; the monarch is head of state. The unwritten (uncodified) constitution relies on conventions, statutes, common law, and authoritative works.

Key features for comparison

  • Parliamentary sovereignty: No formal judicial review of primary legislation (unlike India and the USA). The Supreme Court (established 2009) can rule on devolution issues but cannot strike down Acts of Parliament.
  • Cabinet government and the convention of collective responsibility.
  • The two-and-a-half party system (Conservative, Labour, Liberal Democrats) and its evolution post-Brexit.
  • Devolution to Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland – an evolving quasi-federal arrangement within a unitary state. The Scottish independence question remains live.
  • Brexit and its constitutional implications: the tension between popular sovereignty (the referendum) and parliamentary sovereignty, the impact on the Union.

Comparison with India

Both are parliamentary systems with FPTP electoral systems. Key differences: India has a written constitution with judicial review; the UK does not. India is constitutionally federal; the UK is formally unitary with devolved arrangements. India has a presidential head of state with reserve powers; the UK monarch has only nominal powers.

0 of 12 years asked, 2014–2025The UK political system is not in the current Paper II syllabus.

United States of America

Political System: Presidential federal republic with a strict separation of powers. The President is both head of state and head of government. The Constitution (1787, with 27 amendments) is the supreme law.

Key features for comparison

  • Separation of powers and checks and balances: legislative (Congress), executive (President), judicial (Supreme Court). Each branch has tools to limit the others – a system designed to prevent tyranny but often producing gridlock.
  • Federalism: 50 states with significant autonomy. The evolution from dual federalism (distinct spheres) to cooperative federalism (overlapping responsibilities) to the current era of polarised federalism.
  • The Supreme Court and judicial review (Marbury v. Madison, 1803): the most powerful judiciary in the world. Key debates: originalism versus living constitutionalism, the politicisation of appointments.
  • The two-party system: Democrats and Republicans, sustained by the FPTP electoral system, the Electoral College, and primary elections. Third parties face structural barriers.
  • The Electoral College: an indirect system for electing the President that can produce winners who lose the popular vote (2000, 2016).

Comparison with India

Both are federal systems with written constitutions and independent judiciaries. Key differences: India has a parliamentary system; the USA has a presidential system. India's federalism is centralised (strong Centre); American federalism historically favoured state autonomy. India has a multi-party system; the USA has a two-party system. Both have first-past-the-post, but India uses it for parliamentary seats while the USA uses it for single-member districts plus the Electoral College.

0 of 12 years asked, 2014–2025No question compares the American and Indian systems.

China

Political System: One-party state led by the Chinese Communist Party (CPC). The CPC controls the state apparatus – the government, military (People's Liberation Army), judiciary, and legislature (National People's Congress) all operate under party leadership.

Key features for comparison

  • Party-state fusion: Unlike democratic systems where the party wins elections and forms the government, in China the party is the government. The General Secretary of the CPC is effectively the supreme leader.
  • Democratic centralism: Decisions are discussed at lower levels but once made at the top, they are binding on all. The appearance of consultation combined with the reality of top-down authority.
  • The National People's Congress (NPC): Constitutionally the highest organ of state power, but in practice a rubber-stamp legislature that ratifies CPC decisions.
  • Economic reform without political liberalisation: Deng Xiaoping's post-1978 reforms opened China's economy while maintaining CPC monopoly on political power. The "Beijing Consensus" versus the "Washington Consensus" as competing development models.
  • The Xi Jinping era: Consolidation of power, removal of presidential term limits (2018), the "Chinese Dream" narrative, the anti-corruption campaign as a tool of political control, and the implications for the Party-State relationship.

Comparison with India

Both are large, diverse, developing Asian states that chose fundamentally different political paths after 1949. India chose multiparty democracy with gradual economic liberalisation; China chose one-party authoritarian rule with rapid state-directed economic growth. Key comparison points: economic growth rates, poverty reduction, infrastructure development, individual freedoms, environmental degradation, and the quality of governance.

0 of 12 years asked, 2014–2025China appears in Paper II as a foreign-policy and IR subject, not as a political system.

06

Section 6 · International Relations

International Relations Theory

PYQ frequency

2–7 questions a year

RealismLiberalismConstructivismMarxist and Critical TheoriesFeminist IR Theory

Realism

The dominant paradigm in IR since the mid-20th century. Core assumptions: the international system is anarchic (no central authority), states are the primary actors, states pursue power and security, and morality plays a limited role in international politics.

Classical Realism (Morgenthau): Human nature – specifically the lust for power – drives international conflict. States pursue national interest defined as power. The balance of power is the primary mechanism for maintaining international order. Diplomacy and prudent statecraft can manage, though not eliminate, conflict.

Structural / Neo-Realism (Kenneth Waltz): The anarchic structure of the international system, not human nature, explains state behaviour. States are functionally similar units that differ primarily in their capabilities. The distribution of capabilities (polarity – unipolar, bipolar, multipolar) determines the stability of the system. Waltz argued that bipolar systems are more stable than multipolar ones.

Offensive Realism (Mearsheimer): States pursue hegemony, not just security. Great powers are never satisfied with the status quo because they can never be certain of other states' intentions. This drives a relentless competition for power. Mearsheimer's prediction of Sino-American conflict has become increasingly relevant.

Defensive Realism (Jervis, Walt): The security dilemma – actions taken by one state to enhance its security make other states feel less secure, triggering arms races and spirals of hostility – explains much of international conflict. States should pursue moderate strategies and signal defensive intentions.

Application

Realism explains the persistence of great power competition, the balance of power in Asia, India-China strategic rivalry, nuclear deterrence, and the limitations of international institutions.

7 of 12 years asked, 2014–20258 questions in all; last asked in 2025. Asked in more years than any other single IR theory.

Liberalism

Classical Liberalism in IR (Kant, Wilson): Democratic peace (democracies do not fight each other), international law and institutions can constrain state behaviour, economic interdependence makes war costly and irrational, and the spread of liberal values promotes peace.

Neo-Liberal Institutionalism (Keohane, Nye): Accepts the anarchic international system but argues that international institutions (regimes, organisations, norms) can facilitate cooperation by reducing transaction costs, providing information, and creating repeated interactions that encourage compliance. The key difference from realism: absolute gains matter more than relative gains for liberal institutionalists.

Complex Interdependence (Keohane and Nye): Challenges realism's state-centric, military-security focus. In the modern world, multiple channels connect societies (interstate, transgovernmental, transnational), the hierarchy of issues is fluid (security is not always dominant), and military force is less useful as a policy instrument in many relationships.

Application

Liberalism explains the growth of international institutions (UN, WTO, EU), the logic behind multilateral trade agreements, the democratic peace thesis (and its exceptions), and India's engagement with multilateral regimes.

4 of 12 years asked, 2014–20254 questions in all; last asked in 2025.

Constructivism

Core claims (Alexander Wendt): "Anarchy is what states make of it." The international system's structure is not just material (distribution of capabilities) but also social (shared ideas, norms, identities). State interests are not given by human nature or system structure – they are socially constructed through interaction. Identities shape interests, and interests shape behaviour.

Key concepts: The logic of appropriateness (states act according to norms, not just interests), norm cascades (how new norms spread through the international system), socialisation of states into international society, the role of international organisations in shaping state identity.

Application

Constructivism explains the evolution of sovereignty norms, the spread of human rights norms, the end of apartheid (which materialist theories predicted would last much longer), the taboo against nuclear weapons use, and the construction of "enemy" and "friend" identities in international politics.

0 of 12 years asked, 2014–2025

Marxist and Critical Theories

World Systems Theory (Wallerstein): The global economy is divided into core (developed), periphery (underdeveloped), and semi-periphery states. The core exploits the periphery through unequal exchange, and this structural inequality is maintained by the capitalist world system. Development and underdevelopment are two sides of the same process.

Dependency Theory (Frank, Cardoso): Underdevelopment in the Global South is not a stage to be overcome but a structural condition created by the integration of peripheral economies into the global capitalist system on unequal terms.

Critical Theory (Cox): "Theory is always for someone and for some purpose." Cox distinguishes between problem-solving theory (which accepts the existing framework and seeks to make it work more smoothly) and critical theory (which questions the framework itself). Neo-realism and neo-liberalism are problem-solving theories that legitimise the existing order; critical theory aims to change it.

Application

These theories explain North-South economic disparities, the structural constraints facing developing countries in WTO negotiations, the critique of the liberal international order as serving Western interests, and the demand for a more equitable global governance architecture.

6 of 12 years asked, 2014–20257 questions in all; last asked in 2024.

Feminist IR Theory

Feminist IR challenges the masculinist assumptions embedded in mainstream IR theories. Key contributions: revealing how the "state" and "security" are gendered concepts, showing how women are disproportionately affected by war and militarism, critiquing the public-private divide that excludes women's experiences from IR analysis, and the concept of human security as an alternative to state-centric security.

Key thinkers: Cynthia Enloe (militarism and gender), J. Ann Tickner (gendering world politics), Carol Cohn (the language of nuclear strategy as masculine discourse).

6 of 12 years asked, 2014–20256 questions in all; last asked in 2025.

07

Section 7 · International Relations

India's Foreign Policy

PYQ frequency

9–13 questions a year

The highest-yield section in all of PSIR

Determinants of India's Foreign PolicyIndia-China RelationsIndia-Pakistan RelationsIndia-USA RelationsIndia-Russia RelationsIndia and South Asia (Neighbourhood Policy)India and Southeast Asia (Act East Policy)India's Nuclear PolicyNon-Alignment and Strategic Autonomy

Determinants of India's Foreign Policy

India's foreign policy is shaped by geographical position (location between two hostile neighbours), historical experience (colonialism, partition, non-alignment), economic imperatives (energy security, trade, investment), strategic culture (preference for strategic autonomy, reluctance to enter formal alliances), and domestic politics (coalition pressures, diaspora influence, public opinion).

India-China Relations

The most consequential bilateral relationship for India's strategic future. Key themes:

  • Historical trajectory: The "Hindi-Chini Bhai-Bhai" era, the 1962 war and its psychological impact, the gradual normalisation from the late 1980s, the 2005 "Strategic and Cooperative Partnership," and the post-Galwan deterioration.
  • Boundary dispute: The longest-standing territorial dispute in the world. The Line of Actual Control (LAC) remains undefined. The Galwan Valley clash (June 2020) was the first fatality on the LAC since 1975, marking a structural shift in the relationship.
  • Economic dimension: China is one of India's largest trading partners, but the trade deficit is massive and structural. India's restrictions on Chinese investment (post-2020) and the broader effort to reduce economic dependence.
  • Strategic competition: The Belt and Road Initiative (particularly CPEC through PoK), the Indo-Pacific maritime competition, China's influence in South Asia (Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh), the QUAD as India's balancing strategy.
  • Nuclear and multilateral: China's blocking of India's NSG membership, its stance on UN Security Council reform, and its use of the veto on terrorism-related resolutions affecting Pakistan.
11 of 12 years asked, 2014–202519 questions in all; last asked in 2025. Only the neighbourhood and the UN come up more often in all of PSIR Paper II. See the Paper 2 PYQ analysis

India-Pakistan Relations

The defining security challenge on India's western frontier. Key themes:

  • Kashmir: The core dispute since 1947. The constitutional changes of August 2019 (abrogation of Article 370) and their impact on the bilateral dynamic.
  • Terrorism: The Mumbai attacks (2008), Pathankot (2016), Pulwama (2019), and India's response (surgical strikes, Balakot). Cross-border terrorism as the primary obstacle to normalisation.
  • Nuclear dimension: Both are nuclear-armed states. The doctrine of mutual deterrence, the stability-instability paradox (nuclear weapons deter large-scale war but may embolden sub-conventional aggression), and crisis management mechanisms (or their absence).
  • Diplomatic trajectory: Composite dialogue, back-channel diplomacy, track-two processes, and their repeated disruption by terrorist incidents.
  • Third-party roles: The USA's shifting engagement, China's strategic support for Pakistan, the role of international forums.
5 of 12 years asked, 2014–20255 questions in all; last asked in 2025.

India-USA Relations

The relationship that has undergone the most dramatic transformation in India's foreign policy. Key themes:

  • From estrangement to engagement: Cold War distancing (India-Soviet proximity, USA-Pakistan alliance), the post-Cold War recalibration, the 2005 Civil Nuclear Agreement as the turning point, the bipartisan American consensus on India as a strategic partner.
  • Strategic convergence: The Indo-Pacific framework, the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD), defence technology cooperation (LEMOA, COMCASA, BECA), and shared concerns about China's rise.
  • Economic dimension: Trade, technology transfer, H-1B visas, the Indian diaspora's role, and bilateral trade friction.
  • Limits of the relationship: India's refusal to enter a formal alliance, the Ukraine conflict (India's neutral stance versus US expectations), India's continued engagement with Russia, and divergent positions on trade policy.
9 of 12 years asked, 2014–20259 questions in all; last asked in 2025.

India-Russia Relations

A historically deep but evolving relationship. Key themes: the Soviet-era foundation, defence dependence (S-400, BrahMos, submarine leases), energy cooperation, Russia's growing alignment with China and its implications for India, India's balancing act between Russia and the West, the impact of the Ukraine conflict on the relationship.

5 of 12 years asked, 2014–20255 questions in all; last asked in 2025.

India and South Asia (Neighbourhood Policy)

India's "Neighbourhood First" policy and its challenges. Key themes:

  • SAARC's stagnation and the shift to BIMSTEC as an alternative regional platform.
  • India-Sri Lanka: The Tamil question, China's growing influence (Hambantota port), economic cooperation, the 2022 economic crisis.
  • India-Nepal: Open border, historical ties, constitutional disputes, China's increasing engagement, the boundary controversy.
  • India-Bangladesh: A success story in Indian diplomacy – the Land Boundary Agreement (2015), connectivity projects, the Teesta water dispute, and managing the Rohingya crisis.
  • India-Myanmar: The connectivity corridor, the coup (2021) and its implications, border security.
  • India-Maldives: Strategic significance in the Indian Ocean, the "India Out" campaign and its management, Chinese infrastructure projects.
12 of 12 years asked, 2014–202534 questions in all; last asked in 2025. Asked every year.

India and Southeast Asia (Act East Policy)

The evolution from "Look East" (1991, economic engagement) to "Act East" (2014, strategic engagement). Key themes: ASEAN centrality, the Indo-Pacific framework, connectivity projects (India-Myanmar-Thailand highway, Kaladan multimodal transit), the South China Sea dispute and India's position, India-Japan cooperation in the Indo-Pacific, RCEP withdrawal and its implications.

7 of 12 years asked, 2014–20258 questions in all; last asked in 2025.

India's Nuclear Policy

India's nuclear journey from "peaceful nuclear explosion" (1974) to declared nuclear weapon state (1998). Key themes: the nuclear doctrine (credible minimum deterrence, no-first-use, massive retaliation), the nuclear triad development (land, sea, air-based delivery systems), the Indo-US Civil Nuclear Agreement and its significance, India's position on the NPT (discriminatory), CTBT, and FMCT, the NSG membership question.

10 of 12 years asked, 2014–202510 questions in all; last asked in 2025.

Non-Alignment and Strategic Autonomy

The evolution from Nehruvian non-alignment (moral position, Third World solidarity) to contemporary "multi-alignment" or "strategic autonomy" (pragmatic engagement with all major powers based on national interest). Key debates: is non-alignment still relevant? How does India balance its relationships with the USA, Russia, and China simultaneously? What does "strategic autonomy" mean in practice when you are part of the QUAD but also buy Russian weapons?

11 of 12 years asked, 2014–202515 questions in all; last asked in 2025. This topic connects directly to Paper I themes on Nehru. See the Paper 1 guide.

08

Section 8 · International Relations

Global Issues and International Organisations

PYQ frequency

5–9 questions a year

United Nations and Global GovernanceWTO and International Economic GovernanceRegional OrganisationsNuclear Proliferation and Arms ControlTerrorism and Non-State ActorsHuman Rights and Humanitarian InterventionEnvironment and Climate ChangeCyber Security and Technology in IR

United Nations and Global Governance

The UN system remains the most important multilateral framework, despite its limitations. Key themes:

  • UNSC Reform: Asked in 8 of 12 years (2014-2025), 10 if general UN-reform questions are included. India's claim to permanent membership, the G4 (India, Japan, Germany, Brazil) proposal, opposition from the "Uniting for Consensus" group (Pakistan, Italy, South Korea), the veto question, and the broader debate between representation and effectiveness.
  • UN Peacekeeping: India's contribution (the largest cumulative troop contributor), the evolution of peacekeeping from Chapter VI (consent-based) to Chapter VII (enforcement), the challenges of peacekeeping in failed states, the protection of civilians mandate.
  • R2P (Responsibility to Protect): The tension between sovereignty and human protection. The Libya intervention (2011) as both the success and the failure of R2P (success in preventing massacre, failure in regime change and aftermath). India's cautious position on R2P.
12 of 12 years asked, 2014–202527 questions in all; last asked in 2025. Asked every year.

WTO and International Economic Governance

Key themes: the Doha Development Agenda and its stalemate, the dispute settlement mechanism (and its crisis since 2019 with the US blocking appellate body appointments), agricultural subsidies (India's food security concerns versus developed country demands), TRIPS and public health, the rise of mega-regional trade agreements (RCEP, CPTPP) bypassing the WTO, and the future of multilateral trade governance.

8 of 12 years asked, 2014–20259 questions in all; last asked in 2025. Asked every year from 2020 to 2025.

Regional Organisations

The European Union: The most advanced regional integration experiment. Key themes: supranational governance, the democratic deficit, Brexit and its implications, EU enlargement, the EU as a normative power, EU-India relations.

ASEAN: Consensus-based, non-interventionist regional cooperation. The "ASEAN Way" and its limitations. ASEAN centrality in the Indo-Pacific architecture. India-ASEAN relations.

BRICS: From a Goldman Sachs acronym to a geopolitical grouping. The New Development Bank, the 2024 expansion, BRICS as an alternative to Western-led institutions, the internal contradictions (India-China rivalry within BRICS).

SCO: The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and its evolution from a Central Asian security forum to a broader geopolitical platform. India and Pakistan's admission (2017), the Russia-China dynamic within SCO, and its significance for India.

10 of 12 years asked, 2014–202513 questions in all; last asked in 2025. BRICS and SCO have never been asked.

Nuclear Proliferation and Arms Control

Key themes: the NPT regime and its three pillars (non-proliferation, disarmament, peaceful use), the CTBT (why India has not signed), the IAEA safeguards system, the A.Q. Khan network and the limits of non-proliferation, North Korea's nuclear programme, the Iran nuclear deal (JCPOA and its collapse), India's position as a responsible nuclear power outside the NPT, the Nuclear Suppliers Group and India's membership bid.

4 of 12 years asked, 2014–20256 questions in all; last asked in 2024.

Terrorism and Non-State Actors

Key themes: the definitional debate (one state's terrorist is another's freedom fighter), state-sponsored terrorism (Pakistan and cross-border terrorism against India), the rise and fall of ISIS and its implications, the global counter-terrorism architecture (UNSC resolutions 1267 and 1373), the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) and its role, India's approach to counter-terrorism (zero-tolerance, surgical strikes, international coalition-building), the nexus between terrorism, narcotics, and organised crime.

5 of 12 years asked, 2014–20256 questions in all; last asked in 2025.

Human Rights and Humanitarian Intervention

Key themes: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and its legacy, the tension between universalism and cultural relativism, the International Criminal Court (and why major powers including the USA, Russia, China, and India have not joined), the R2P doctrine and its application (Libya, Syria, Myanmar), the use of human rights as a tool of foreign policy, economic sanctions as a human rights instrument.

4 of 12 years asked, 2014–20254 questions in all; last asked in 2025.

Environment and Climate Change

Key themes: the evolution of the global climate regime (Rio 1992, Kyoto 1997, Copenhagen 2009, Paris 2015, Glasgow 2021), the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) and its erosion, India's position in climate negotiations (voluntary targets, the International Solar Alliance, the Panchamrit commitments), climate justice (historical emissions versus current emissions), the loss and damage fund, the intersection of climate change with security, migration, and development.

8 of 12 years asked, 2014–20259 questions in all; last asked in 2025.

Cyber Security and Technology in IR

An emerging theme in PSIR. Key topics: cyber warfare (Stuxnet, Russian interference in elections), data sovereignty (India's data localisation policies), the weaponisation of social media, AI and autonomous weapons systems, the digital divide between developed and developing nations, the governance gap in cyber space (no comprehensive treaty), India's position on internet governance.

1 of 12 years asked, 2014–20251 question in all; last asked in 2019. No question on cyber warfare or AI.

Preparation

How to Prepare Paper II Effectively

The Current Affairs Integration Challenge

Paper II's current affairs component is what makes it both rewarding and challenging. Unlike Paper I, where a question on Plato or Marx can be answered from textbook knowledge alone, a Paper II question on India-China relations or climate change requires you to integrate developments from the last 12 to 18 months.

The strategy

  1. Months 1–5

    Build a strong theoretical and historical base from textbooks (Goldstein, Rajagopalan) in the first 4 to 5 months.

  2. From month 5

    From month 5 onward, dedicate 30 minutes daily to current affairs with a PSIR lens. Use the PSIR Magazine, MEA Annual Report, and editorial pages of The Hindu and Indian Express.

  3. Every day

    Maintain a running current affairs notebook organised by PSIR syllabus topic. When you read about India's engagement with ASEAN, file it under "Act East Policy." When you read about a UNSC vote, file it under "International Organisations."

  4. Final 2 months

    In the final 2 months, map all major developments of the last 18 months to specific PSIR syllabus sections. This mapping exercise ensures you can connect current events to your theoretical framework in the exam.

Practice

Practice Questions by Section

Use these alongside the Paper 2 PYQ analysis for comprehensive practice.

Sections 1–4

  1. Q01"Globalisation has not weakened the state but transformed its role." Discuss with examples from developed and developing countries.
  2. Q02Compare the structural-functionalist and political economy approaches to comparative politics.

Section 5 (Country Studies)

  1. Q03Compare the federal structures of India and the USA with respect to the distribution of powers and the role of the judiciary.
  2. Q04"China's economic success without political liberalisation challenges the assumption that development and democracy go together." Critically examine.

Section 6 (IR Theory)

  1. Q05"Anarchy is what states make of it." Evaluate the constructivist challenge to realist assumptions about the international system.
  2. Q06Compare realist and liberal explanations for the persistence of international institutions.

Section 7 (India's Foreign Policy)

  1. Q07Assess India's strategic options in managing the simultaneous challenges posed by China and Pakistan.
  2. Q08"India's foreign policy has evolved from non-alignment to multi-alignment." Evaluate this transformation with reference to India's relationships with the USA, Russia, and China.

Section 8 (Global Issues)

  1. Q09"The UN Security Council reform is essential for the organisation's legitimacy but unlikely given the current distribution of power." Discuss.
  2. Q10Evaluate India's role in global climate negotiations from the perspective of climate justice.
Paper 2 PYQ analysisPSIR 2026 question paper

Your plan

What to Do Next

  1. 01

    Start with IR Theory

    It provides the analytical framework for everything in Paper II. Read Goldstein's theory chapters first.

  2. 02

    Build your India's Foreign Policy base

    From Rajagopalan and the MEA Annual Report.

  3. 03

    Study country systems (UK, USA, China)

    Work through them systematically – but no 2014-2025 question asks about these systems, so treat them as background.

  4. 04

    Integrate current affairs daily

    Using the PSIR Magazine.

  5. 05

    Solve PYQs topic by topic

    Using the Paper 2 PYQ analysis and compare with the answer writing framework.

  6. 06

    Cross-reference with Paper I

    IR theory builds on political ideologies, and India's foreign policy connects to Indian Political Thought (Nehru, non-alignment); see the Paper 1 guide.

  7. 07

    Get the right books

    See the PSIR Booklist.

  8. 08

    Visit the PSIR Optional hub

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Paper II guide compiled by Rahul Puri, PSIR Faculty, Anantam IAS. Updated September 2026.

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Rahul Puri teaches Anantam IAS's six-month PSIR Optional program: both papers, sixteen tests and weekly answer writing.

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