Green mobility in India is continuously promoted these days. Critically examine which pathways are most suited to India’s developmental context and identify the structural challenges that limit their adoption.

India's green mobility transition is shaped by a unique developmental context— rapid motorisation, 85% dependence on crude oil imports, rising urban air pollution, growing freight demand, fiscal constraints and the need to protect livelihoods in the agriculture sector. Consequently, unlike developed countries pursuing an EV-centric transition, India has adopted a multi-pathway approach balancing energy security, affordability, climate commitments and inclusive growth.

Multiple pathways:

• Electric Mobility – for Urban Passenger Transport and Ideal for 2wheelers, 3-wheelers and buses due to shorter travel distances and higher efficiency. It is being supported by PM E-DRIVE and PM e-Bus Sewa.
• Ethanol Blending – this can help India in attaining energy security. It Utilises the existing petrol vehicle fleet while reducing crude oil imports and increasing farmers' income. India has achieved 20% ethanol blending (E20) ahead of the 2025-26 target.
• Bio-CNG – for Circular Economy. It converts agricultural residue and organic waste into clean fuel, simultaneously addressing stubble burning, waste management and transport emissions through the SATAT and GOBARdhan initiatives.
• Green Hydrogen – Most suitable for heavy trucks, long-distance freight, shipping and railways, where battery technology is less feasible. Promoted under the National Green Hydrogen Mission.
• Public Transport – Best for Sustainable Urbanisation: Expansion of Metro Rail, PM e-Bus Sewa and RRTS offers the largest reduction in congestion, emissions and fuel consumption while ensuring equitable mobility.

Structural Challenges

• Critical mineral dependence: Heavy reliance on imported lithium, cobalt and rare earth elements.
• Infrastructure deficit: Inadequate charging stations, hydrogen refuelling and Bio-CNG distribution networks.
• High capital costs: EVs and hydrogen vehicles remain expensive despite incentives.
• Resource constraints: Large-scale ethanol expansion raises concerns over land, water and food security.
• Grid decarbonisation: Coal still dominates electricity generation, reducing the lifecycle benefits of EVs.
• Institutional fragmentation: Weak integration between transport, energy, urban planning and environmental policies.

Therefore, given India's diverse transport demand, no single fuel can ensure a successful transition.