Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol (1997).

Introduction: Global warming is the long-term rise in Earth's average surface temperature, driven by greenhouse gases (GHGs) — chiefly carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide — that trap outgoing heat in the atmosphere. The 1997 Kyoto Protocol was the first treaty to set legally binding limits on these gases.

Body:

• Effects on global climate: melting glaciers and polar ice raise sea levels and threaten coasts; ocean warming and acidification harm coral reefs and fisheries; monsoon and rainfall patterns turn erratic; and heatwaves, droughts, and intense storms grow more frequent, stressing food, water, and health systems worldwide.
• Kyoto's binding approach: the Protocol placed quantified, legally binding emission-reduction targets on developed (Annex I) countries for the 2008-2012 first commitment period while exempting developing ones, reflecting the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.
• Control measures (flexible mechanisms): it created three market tools to cut costs — International Emissions Trading, where countries trade surplus emission allowances; the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), funding clean projects in developing nations in return for carbon credits; and Joint Implementation, where one developed country invests in emission cuts within another. Alongside the market tools, the treaty encouraged carbon sinks through afforestation and a shift to cleaner energy and industrial practices.

Conclusion: Kyoto pioneered legally binding cuts but covered only a slice of global emissions, so the 2015 Paris Agreement, with universal nationally determined pledges, now carries the effort forward.