Trace the trajectory of land reforms in India after Independence and explain why they remained uneven across states.

Introduction:

Land is a State subject under Entry 18, List II of the Seventh Schedule; the 10th Agricultural Census (2015-16) recorded average operational holdings at 1.08 hectares, with 86% small and marginal. Land reforms were a foundational policy goal of the First Plan (1951), but outcomes have varied widely across states.

Phased trajectory:

Phase one abolished intermediaries — UP Zamindari Abolition Act 1950 and similar laws ended absentee landlordism. Phase two introduced tenancy reform (security of tenure, fair rent) and ceiling laws (1960s-70s). Phase three pushed consolidation, cooperative farming, and the Bhoodan-Gramdan movement under Vinoba Bhave from 1951.

Uneven outcomes:

West Bengal's Operation Barga (1978) recorded sharecroppers; Kerala's 1963 Act (effective 1970) abolished tenancy decisively; Karnataka tenancy reform transferred land to tillers. Bihar, eastern UP, and Odisha stalled — political dominance of landlord castes, weak revenue administration, and absence of cadastral records blocked redistribution. Punjab-Haryana focused on consolidation rather than redistribution.

Modern phase:

SVAMITVA (launched April 2020) maps abadi land in 65,000+ villages via drones; DILRMP digitises records; Bhulekh portals cover 30+ states. The NITI Aayog Model Agricultural Land Leasing Act 2016 has been adopted by only a handful — UP, Uttarakhand, MP, Andhra Pradesh.

Way forward / Conclusion:

Accelerate DILRMP completion by 2026, scale SVAMITVA to all rural India, push Model Land Leasing Act adoption via a 16th FC performance grant, and integrate land records with KCC and PMFBY for credit-insurance portability.