The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework is the global plan to halt and reverse biodiversity loss by 2030, adopted at COP-15 of the Convention on Biological Diversity in Montreal in December 2022 under a Chinese presidency. It replaced the Aichi Targets, not one of which was fully met, and it differs from them in a way that matters: it attaches numbers to finance and to harmful subsidies, not only to conservation area.
Origin and Structure
- Adopted at the fifteenth Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, held in Montreal in December 2022 with China presiding, which is why the framework carries both city names.
- It succeeds the Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2011-2020), of which none was fully achieved globally.
- 2050 vision: living in harmony with nature.
- 2030 mission: to take urgent action to halt and reverse biodiversity loss, putting nature on a path to recovery.
- The architecture is four long-term goals for 2050 and 23 action-oriented targets for 2030.
Alongside it, COP-15 adopted the Cali Fund arrangements on digital sequence information and a monitoring framework with headline indicators.
The Four Goals
- Goal A: maintain, enhance or restore ecosystem integrity, halt human-induced extinction of known threatened species and reduce extinction risk tenfold, and maintain genetic diversity.
- Goal B: sustainably use and manage biodiversity so that nature’s contributions to people are valued, maintained and enhanced.
- Goal C: share monetary and non-monetary benefits from genetic resources and digital sequence information fairly and equitably, including with indigenous peoples and local communities.
- Goal D: ensure adequate means of implementation — finance, capacity building, technology transfer — are accessible to all parties, particularly developing countries.
The Targets That Carry the Framework
| Target | What it requires |
|---|---|
| Target 1 | Participatory, integrated spatial planning covering all areas, to bring loss of high-biodiversity areas close to zero by 2030. |
| Target 2 | Effective restoration of at least 30 per cent of degraded terrestrial, inland water, coastal and marine ecosystems. |
| Target 3 (30×30) | Conserve at least 30 per cent of terrestrial, inland water, coastal and marine areas through protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures. The headline target. |
| Target 5 | Ensure use, harvesting and trade of wild species is sustainable, safe and legal. |
| Target 6 | Reduce the introduction rate of invasive alien species by at least 50 per cent. |
| Target 7 | Reduce pollution risks, including cutting excess nutrients by half and pesticide risk by half. |
| Target 8 | Minimise the impact of climate change on biodiversity through mitigation, adaptation and ecosystem-based approaches. |
| Target 15 | Require large and transnational businesses to monitor, assess and disclose biodiversity risks, dependencies and impacts. |
| Target 18 | Identify and eliminate, phase out or reform subsidies harmful to biodiversity by at least 500 billion dollars a year by 2030. |
| Target 19 | Mobilise at least 200 billion dollars a year from all sources, including 20 billion dollars a year of international flows by 2025 and 30 billion by 2030. |
| Targets 22 and 23 | Ensure participation of indigenous peoples and local communities, and gender equality in implementation. |
Targets 18 and 19 are the genuine departure from Aichi. Aichi asked for conservation; Kunming-Montreal asks who pays and what stops funding the damage.
India’s Commitments and Initiatives
- Updated National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP), submitted at COP-16 in Cali in 2024, with 23 national targets mapped to the 23 global targets.
- Biological Diversity (Amendment) Act, 2023, which simplified compliance for Indian companies and AYUSH practitioners and revised the access and benefit-sharing framework.
- Protected area network: over 100 national parks and more than 550 wildlife sanctuaries, plus community reserves and OECM sites that count towards Target 3.
- Species programmes: Project Tiger, Project Elephant, Project Dolphin, Project Lion and Project Cheetah.
- Wetlands: more than 90 Ramsar sites, the highest in Asia, and the Amrit Dharohar initiative.
- Restoration: Green India Mission, Nagar Van Yojana, and the UNCCD pledge to restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030.
- Coastal: mangrove restoration under MISHTI and the coral reef programme.
- Finance: the Green Credit Programme, and biodiversity linkage to CAMPA and compensatory afforestation.
- Community: over 2.7 lakh Biodiversity Management Committees and People’s Biodiversity Registers, the largest such decentralised network anywhere.
Eco-sensitive zones around protected areas are the regulatory instrument through which much of Target 1 is meant to operate in India.
The Honest Gaps
- 30×30 is not close. India’s terrestrial protected area coverage is roughly 5 per cent, rising when OECMs and community reserves are counted, but still far from thirty.
- Finance is behind. The 20 billion dollar international flow due by 2025 has not materialised at scale, and the Global Environment Facility’s biodiversity window is small relative to the need.
- Target 15 has no Indian mechanism. There is no mandatory biodiversity disclosure requirement for large companies.
- Marine coverage lags terrestrial coverage in India as it does almost everywhere.
- Subsidy reform is politically hard. Target 18 asks countries to cut the subsidies that drive habitat conversion, which in India means touching fertiliser, power and irrigation pricing.
The framework is better designed than Aichi. Whether it performs better depends almost entirely on Targets 18 and 19, which is to say on money rather than on intent.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework?
A global agreement adopted at COP-15 of the Convention on Biological Diversity in Montreal in December 2022, under a Chinese presidency. It sets a 2050 vision of living in harmony with nature, a 2030 mission to halt and reverse biodiversity loss, four long-term goals and 23 action targets.
What is the 30×30 target?
Target 3 of the framework, requiring that at least 30 per cent of terrestrial, inland water, coastal and marine areas be effectively conserved by 2030 through protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures. It is the framework’s headline commitment.
How is it different from the Aichi Targets?
It attaches numbers to finance and harmful subsidies, not only to conservation. Target 19 requires 200 billion dollars a year to be mobilised and Target 18 requires harmful subsidies to be cut by 500 billion dollars a year, which the Aichi Targets never specified.
What has India done to implement the framework?
India submitted an updated National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan at COP-16 in 2024 with 23 national targets, passed the Biological Diversity (Amendment) Act in 2023, expanded its Ramsar site network past 90, and runs species programmes, mangrove restoration under MISHTI and a network of over 2.7 lakh Biodiversity Management Committees.
Is the framework legally binding?
No. Like most agreements under the Convention on Biological Diversity it is voluntary, implemented through national biodiversity strategies and action plans and reviewed through a monitoring framework of headline indicators.
What are India’s main gaps in meeting the targets?
Protected area coverage is well short of 30 per cent, marine coverage lags terrestrial, there is no mandatory biodiversity disclosure requirement for large businesses under Target 15, and reforming biodiversity-harmful subsidies under Target 18 would mean touching fertiliser, power and irrigation pricing.
Practice Questions
Prelims MCQs
1. The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework was adopted at:
- (a) COP-13, Cancun
- (b) COP-14, Sharm El-Sheikh
- (c) COP-15, Montreal
- (d) COP-16, Cali
Answer: (c) COP-15, Montreal
2. Target 3 of the framework, popularly called 30×30, requires conservation of at least:
- (a) 20 per cent of land and sea
- (b) 30 per cent of land and sea
- (c) 40 per cent of land only
- (d) 50 per cent of marine areas
Answer: (b) 30 per cent of land and sea
3. Under Target 19, the annual finance to be mobilised from all sources by 2030 is at least:
- (a) 20 billion dollars
- (b) 100 billion dollars
- (c) 200 billion dollars
- (d) 500 billion dollars
Answer: (c) 200 billion dollars
4. Target 18 of the framework relates to:
- (a) Invasive alien species
- (b) Biodiversity-harmful subsidies
- (c) Business disclosure
- (d) Ecosystem restoration
Answer: (b) Biodiversity-harmful subsidies
5. India submitted its updated National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan at:
- (a) COP-15, Montreal
- (b) COP-16, Cali
- (c) COP-27, Sharm El-Sheikh
- (d) COP-28, Dubai
Answer: (b) COP-16, Cali
Mains Questions
- Discuss the aim and goals of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework and mention India’s commitments and initiatives to achieve them. (15 marks, 250 words)
- “Kunming-Montreal differs from Aichi because it names the money.” Examine this claim with reference to Targets 18 and 19. (15 marks, 250 words)
- Examine the feasibility of the 30×30 target for India, given its current protected area coverage and population density. (10 marks, 150 words)
- Discuss the role of Biodiversity Management Committees and People’s Biodiversity Registers in India’s conservation architecture. (10 marks, 150 words)
- Critically assess the adequacy of India’s legal framework for access and benefit sharing after the Biological Diversity (Amendment) Act, 2023. (15 marks, 250 words)
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