GS Paper 3 practice questions for UPSC Mains 2026.

Introduction: Union Cabinet approved the IndiaAI Mission on 7 March 2024 with an outlay of ₹10,371.92 crore over five years (MeitY); Stanford HAI AI Index 2025 ranks India 2nd globally on AI talent with ~50,460 AI authors and inventors.

Body: 1) Seven pillars — AIKosh datasets, Compute Capacity (10,000+ GPUs PPP), Innovation Centre, Application Development, FutureSkills, Startup Financing, Safe and Trusted AI. 2) Compute gap — single empanelled provider concentration risk; lag against US and China hyperscalers. 3) Foundation-model gap — India funds applied AI but lacks a sovereign frontier model; Sarvam-1 and Krutrim are small relative to GPT-4 class.

Way forward: Operationalise the AI Safety Institute; pre-fund a sovereign frontier-model consortium; mandate compute neutrality; align with the IT (Intermediary) Amendment Rules 2026 on synthetic content.

Introduction: NPCI reported 18.4 billion UPI transactions in March 2025, worth ₹24.77 lakh crore — the world's largest real-time retail payments rail.

Body: 1) Global rollout — UPI live in UAE, Singapore PayNow link, France (Eiffel Tower), Sri Lanka, Mauritius, Bhutan. 2) Concentration risk — PhonePe and Google Pay together ~85% market share against NPCI's 30% cap (deferred to Dec 2026). 3) Zero-MDR sustainability vs incentive scheme of ₹1,500 crore (Budget 2025-26).

Way forward: Operationalise the 30% market-share cap; expand UPI-PayNow style linkages; price small-merchant MDR transparently.

Introduction: MeitY notified the IT (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Amendment Rules 2026 on 10 February 2026 (effective 20 February 2026); over 50 million AI voice-clone calls were estimated during the 2024 Lok Sabha campaign.

Body: 1) Rules framework — definition of "synthetically generated information," visible labels, embedded provenance, takedown clocks of 3 hours (court/government orders) and 2 hours (intimate-image and impersonation deepfakes). 2) Criminal gaps — BNS 2023 covers identity impersonation under Section 319 but no dedicated deepfake offence; lack of victim restitution. 3) Institutional gap — no statutory AI regulator; reliance on Section 79 safe-harbour conditionality.

Way forward: Standalone Digital India Act with risk-tiered AI liability; statutory AI Safety Institute; mandatory C2PA-style content provenance; victim-compensation fund.

Introduction: Mission Divyastra demonstrated Agni-5 MIRV capability on 11 March 2024 — India joined a small club of MIRV powers; Defence R&D budget for 2025-26 stands at ₹26,816 crore (~0.7% of total defence outlay).

Body: 1) Indigenisation pivot — Pralay quasi-ballistic missile inducted 2023; Pinaka exported to Armenia; iDEX startups received 500+ contracts. 2) Restructuring — K. Vijayaraghavan Committee 2023 recommended a Defence Technology Council chaired by PM, slimmer DRDO. 3) Gaps — public R&D ~0.65% of GDP (DST 2024); private defence R&D thin; long programme cycles.

Way forward: Operationalise Defence Technology Council; raise R&D to 2% of GDP per Anusandhan NRF target; expand iDEX and Technology Development Fund; ring-fence frontier-tech budgets.

Introduction: Indian Space Policy 2023 notified by Department of Space on 20 April 2023; FDI policy revised 21 February 2024 — up to 100% under automatic route for satellites (74% for manufacturing, 49% for launch vehicles); ~190 space startups (DPIIT 2025).

Body: 1) Institutional roles — IN-SPACe as single-window authoriser (300+ authorisations), NSIL as commercial arm, ISRO retains R&D. 2) Private milestones — Skyroot Vikram-S suborbital (Nov 2022), Agnikul Agnibaan SOrTeD (May 2024). 3) Legislative gaps — no Space Activities Act yet, no liability/insurance framework, IP allocation between IN-SPACe authorisations and private innovators unclear.

Way forward: Pass Space Activities Bill 2025; ratify Liability and Registration Conventions in domestic law; create a dedicated space-IP regime; structured procurement from private launch providers.

Introduction: ISM 1.0 approved December 2021 with ₹76,000 crore outlay; by December 2025, 10 approved projects with ~₹1.6 lakh crore committed across six states (MeitY); Tata-PSMC Dholera is the only front-end fab.

Body: 1) Composition — 1 fab (28nm and above) + 5 OSAT/ATMP units; Micron Sanand, Tata Jagiroad, CG-Renesas, Kaynes, HCL-Foxconn. 2) Materials and equipment gap — photoresist, slurry, specialty gases all imported; sovereignty at fab gate is illusory. 3) ISM 2.0 (Budget 2026-27, ₹1,000 crore FY26 provision) pivots to equipment, materials, design IP, and skilling.

Way forward: Scale ISM 2.0 funding to match the ecosystem gap; deepen Design Linked Incentive (target 100 firms, 20 past ₹1,500 crore revenue); secure critical-mineral supply via KABIL and Quad chip alliance.

Introduction: Cabinet approved the National Quantum Mission on 19 April 2023 with ₹6,003.65 crore over eight years (DST); Amaravati Quantum Valley launched 7 February 2026 with IBM Quantum System Two.

Body: 1) Four Thematic Hubs — Computing at IISc, Communication at IIT Madras + C-DOT, Sensing at IIT Bombay, Materials at IIT Delhi; 152 researchers across 43 institutions. 2) Indigenous milestones — QpiAI-Indus 25-qubit machine (14 April 2025); Dimira cryogenic cables; ISRO entanglement-based QKD over 300 m. 3) PQC roadmap — DST released migration plan February 2026; CII to PQC by 2029, enterprises by 2033, aligned to NIST FIPS 203-205 (August 2024).

Way forward: Increase NQM corpus through a private-capital window; mandate PQC migration for Aadhaar, UPI, defence networks; expand satellite QKD beyond 2,000 km target.

Introduction: BioE3 Policy approved 24 August 2024; bioeconomy at US$195.3 billion in 2025 (~4.8% of GDP), up from US$10 billion in 2014; 11,855 biotech startups in 2025 (DBT India Bioeconomy Report).

Body: 1) Six BioE3 sectors — bio-chemicals, smart proteins, precision biotherapeutics, climate-resilient agriculture, carbon capture, marine/space biotech. 2) National Biofoundry Network — 21 facilities launched 1 September 2025. 3) Genome-edited rice Kamala (DRR Dhan 100) and Pusa DST Rice 1 released 4 May 2025 via CRISPR SDN-1; ~19% higher yield, 20% lower emissions. 4) Regulatory gap — Supreme Court split verdict on GM mustard DMH-11 (July 2024) directed Centre to frame National GM Crop Policy.

Way forward: Operationalise National GM Crop Policy; bring GEAC under a statutory Biotechnology Regulatory Authority; expand biofoundry access to startups; align SDN-1 exemption with EU/US norms.

Introduction: Chandrayaan-3's Vikram lander touched down at 69.37°S near the lunar south pole on 23 August 2023 — India became the fourth country to soft-land on the Moon and first at the south pole; SpaDeX achieved its first docking on 16 January 2025, making India the fourth nation in the docking club.

Body: 1) Strategic significance — south-pole water-ice access for future habitats; docking is a prerequisite for the Bharatiya Antariksh Station targeted for 2035. 2) Commercial spillover — IN-SPACe authorisations crossed 300; NSIL handled the LVM3-OneWeb contracts worth ~₹1,000 crore. 3) Talent and industry stack — ~190 space startups (2025).

Way forward: Operationalise the BAS roadmap; accelerate Gaganyaan H1 launch; scale NSIL's commercial portfolio.

Introduction: ESA Space Debris Office (Annual Report 2024) tracks ~40,500 objects larger than 10 cm in Earth orbit; ISRO target of debris-free Indian missions by 2030 announced in 2024.

Body: 1) Indian debris share — PSLV-C37 upper stage and Mission Shakti 2019 ASAT debris; ISRO's IS4OM tracks 28,000+ objects. 2) Project NETRA — Bengaluru-based space situational awareness facility. 3) International framework — UN COPUOS LTS guidelines, Outer Space Treaty 1967.

Way forward: Active debris-removal demonstration mission; legally binding global ASAT moratorium; expand NETRA to deep-space tracking.

Introduction: MoEFCC office memorandum (March 2022) exempts SDN-1 and SDN-2 edits without foreign DNA from Rules 1989 GM-organism regulation; backed by DBT 2022 guidelines for safety assessment of genome-edited plants.

Body: 1) Science — SDN-1 no template (knock-out), SDN-2 small template (point edits), SDN-3 large insert (transgene). 2) Implications — Kamala and Pusa DST Rice 1 (4 May 2025) released under SDN-1 exemption; faster regulatory pathway. 3) Concerns — civil-society challenge to exemption; lack of segregation in seed system.

Way forward: Statutory backing via Biotechnology Regulatory Authority Bill; mandatory PPV&FR Act 2001 registration of edited varieties; transparent biosafety dossiers.

Introduction: DST Research and Development Statistics 2024 records gross expenditure on R&D (GERD) at ~0.65% of GDP, against China's 2.4% and South Korea's 4.9%; Anusandhan National Research Foundation Act 2023 envisages ₹50,000 crore over five years (₹14,000 crore government, ₹36,000 crore private).

Body: 1) Structural gap — private R&D under 40% of GERD vs 75-80% in OECD; weak university research; thin patent commercialisation. 2) ANRF design — PM as ex-officio President; mission-mode grants; private co-funding model. 3) Frontier areas — semiconductor design, AI, quantum, biotech connected via deep-tech start-up policy 2025.

Way forward: Operationalise ANRF governance board; expand SERB consolidated into ANRF; mandatory CSR-R&D channelisation; raise GERD to 2% by 2030.

Introduction: Aadhaar reached 1.4 billion enrolments by 2025 (UIDAI); UPI handled 18.4 billion transactions in March 2025; G20 New Delhi Declaration 2023 endorsed DPI as a development framework.

Body: 1) India Stack layers — Identity (Aadhaar), Payments (UPI, Aadhaar Enabled Payments), Data (Account Aggregator, DigiLocker), Sectoral (ABDM, OCEN, AgriStack, ONDC). 2) DPDP Act 2023 — notice and consent, Data Protection Board, exemptions for State processing under Section 17. 3) Governance gaps — DPDP rules pending operationalisation; Aadhaar exclusion documented (Hadi-Reetika Khera research); MOSIP exports to ~12 countries.

Way forward: Notify DPDP Rules with grievance redress timelines; strengthen Data Protection Board independence; mandate exclusion audits; export India Stack via MOSIP partnerships.

Introduction: ABDM launched 27 September 2021 by Ministry of Health and Family Welfare; 76+ crore ABHA IDs and 4.5+ lakh linked health facilities by 2025 (NHA dashboard).

Body: 1) Architecture — ABHA (health ID), HPR (healthcare professional registry), HFR (health facility registry), Unified Health Interface. 2) Privacy challenges — federated data, no central health locker; DPDP Act 2023 children-and-disabled safeguards. 3) Adoption gap — private hospitals slow to integrate.

Way forward: Mandate ABHA-linked claims under PMJAY; strict HMIS interoperability standards; explicit health-data fiduciary regime under DPDP Rules.

Introduction: Drone Rules 2021 (MoCA, 25 August 2021) replaced restrictive 2018 framework; PLI for drones outlay ₹120 crore over three years (FY22-24); domestic drone market valued at ~US$1.4 billion in 2024.

Body: 1) Policy stack — Digital Sky platform, type certification by QCI, NPNT (No Permission, No Take-off). 2) Achievements — Namo Drone Didi scheme (15,000 drones to women SHGs), Garuda Aerospace, ideaForge. 3) Security risks — IAF drone strike Jammu airbase 2021; counter-drone systems by DRDO.

Way forward: Counter-Unmanned Aircraft Systems policy; spectrum allocation for BVLOS; export controls for dual-use components; strict licensing of foreign-origin components.

Introduction: Cabinet approved National Green Hydrogen Mission on 4 January 2023 with ₹19,744 crore outlay (FY24-30); target 5 MMT GH2 by 2030; SIGHT (Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition) is the financing arm with ₹17,490 crore.

Body: 1) Cost gap — green H2 at ~US$5-6/kg vs grey H2 at US$1.5-2/kg; SIGHT bridges via electrolyser and hydrogen-production tranches. 2) Demand creation — refineries, fertilisers, steel given green H2 obligations; pilot in shipping and heavy mobility. 3) Bottlenecks — electrolyser imports, water consumption (~9 kg per kg H2), grid integration.

Way forward: Accelerate domestic electrolyser PLI; mandate green-H2 purchase obligations on PSUs; integrate with renewable capacity tenders; finalise certification standards.

Introduction: COP28 UAE Consensus (13 December 2023) called for "transitioning away from fossil fuels in energy systems" and tripled renewables target; Loss and Damage Fund operationalised under World Bank; COP29 Baku (Nov 2024) agreed New Collective Quantified Goal of US$300 billion/year by 2035.

Body: 1) India's stand — defended developmental space, opposed phase-out language; CBDR-RC principle. 2) Finance gap — NCQG US$300 billion vs developing-country need of US$1.3 trillion. 3) Just Energy Transition Partnerships excluded India.

Way forward: Demand mobilisation roadmap by 2026; push for Article 9 grants vs loans; advocate fossil-fuel subsidy reform with carve-outs for developing countries.

Introduction: EIA Notification 2006 issued under Section 3 of Environment Protection Act 1986; SC in Vanashakti vs Union of India (May 2025) struck down post-facto environmental clearances; draft EIA 2020 still not finalised.

Body: 1) Process — screening, scoping, public consultation, appraisal by EAC/SEIAA. 2) Dilution concerns — exemptions for B2 category projects under 2020 draft; post-facto clearances offered via 2017 and 2021 OMs (struck down). 3) Capacity gap — under-resourced SEIAAs; opaque public hearings.

Way forward: Finalise EIA notification with broader public consultation timelines; statutory EAC mandates; geo-tagged compliance dashboard; ban on post-facto clearances codified.

Introduction: Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam 2023 notified December 2023; India's updated NDC commits to an additional carbon sink of 2.5-3 billion tonnes CO2e by 2030.

Body: 1) Key changes — exemption for security infrastructure within 100 km of borders, linear projects up to 10 ha, eco-tourism. 2) Judicial review — SC interim order in Ashok Kumar Sharma vs Union (Feb 2024) applied Godavarman "dictionary meaning" of forest. 3) Carbon-sink impact — risk of denotifying deemed forests reduces sink target.

Way forward: Notify rules implementing SC "dictionary meaning" definition; state-wise deemed-forest inventory in 6 months; mandatory compensatory afforestation audits under CAMPA Act 2016; align with NDC.

Introduction: Nano Mission launched by DST in 2007 with ₹1,000 crore Phase II (2014-25); India ranks 3rd globally in nano-science publications (Scopus 2024); 2023 Nobel in Chemistry recognised quantum dots — semiconductors at nanoscale.

Body: 1) Achievements — IIT-Bombay Nanofabrication Facility, Centres of Excellence at IISc and JNCASR, nano-urea by IFFCO commercialised 2021. 2) Gaps — no dedicated nano-safety regulation; FSSAI guidelines pending; occupational exposure standards thin. 3) Strategic value — nano-coatings for stealth, batteries.

Way forward: Notify Nano-Safety Guidelines under EPA 1986; mandatory labelling of food/cosmetics; expand Nano Mission Phase III with industry co-funding.