How India is governing its water resources 

Why in News?

India’s growing water stress and the need for effective governance have once again come into focus amid discussions on sustainable development, groundwater depletion, urban water scarcity and climate resilience. Policymakers are increasingly emphasising that India’s water crisis is not merely a question of scarcity, but one of governance, management and institutional coordination.

The debate gains significance as India seeks to achieve:

• Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 on clean water and sanitation
• Long-term economic and developmental goals linked to the vision of becoming a developed nation by 2047

UPSC Relevance

Prelims Relevance

• Jal Jeevan Mission, Atal Bhujal Yojana, Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana, Namami Gange Programme, Constitutional provisions related to water, Groundwater and irrigation

Mains Relevance

GS Paper 2

• Federalism, Centre-State relations, Governance, public policy, Decentralisation, local governance

GS Paper 3

• Water conservation, resource management, Climate change, sustainable development, Agriculture and irrigation, Urban infrastructure, environmental management

Essay

• Water security and development
• Sustainable governance
• Climate resilience and natural resources

Background and Context

Water is central to:

• Agriculture
• Industrial development
• Public health
• Food security
• Ecological sustainability

India possesses significant water resources in absolute terms due to:

• Monsoon rainfall
• Himalayan river systems
• Groundwater aquifers

However, despite receiving nearly 4,000 billion cubic metres (BCM) of annual rainfall, only a portion becomes effectively usable due to:

• Uneven spatial distribution
• Seasonal concentration of rainfall
• Inadequate storage infrastructure
• Pollution and ecological degradation

Hydrological assessments indicate that only around 1,100 BCM of water is considered utilisable.

India’s water challenge has therefore evolved from a purely physical scarcity problem into a broader governance and sustainability issue.

The Emerging Water Crisis in India

Declining Per Capita Water Availability

India’s per capita water availability has steadily declined because of:

• Population growth
• Urbanisation
• Industrialisation
• Rising agricultural demand

Per capita availability:

• Exceeded 5,000 cubic metres annually after independence
• Has now declined to nearly 1,400 cubic metres

According to international standards:

• Below 1,700 cubic metres indicates water stress
• Below 1,000 cubic metres indicates water scarcity

Several Indian regions are approaching severe stress conditions.

Groundwater Depletion

India is the world’s largest extractor of groundwater, accounting for nearly one-fourth of global groundwater extraction.

Groundwater supports:

• Irrigation
• Drinking water
• Rural livelihoods

However, overdependence has caused:

• Falling water tables
• Aquifer depletion
• Land subsidence in some regions
• Declining water quality

States such as:

• Punjab
• Haryana
• Rajasthan
• Gujarat
• Tamil Nadu

face serious groundwater stress.

Regional and Seasonal Imbalances

India’s rainfall is highly uneven:

• Most rainfall occurs during the southwest monsoon
• Some regions face floods while others face droughts

For example:

• Assam and Bihar often experience floods
• Rajasthan and parts of peninsular India face chronic water scarcity

This uneven distribution creates major governance challenges.

Water Pollution

Rivers, lakes and groundwater sources are increasingly polluted due to:

• Untreated sewage
• Industrial effluents
• Agricultural runoff
• Solid waste dumping

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has identified several polluted river stretches across the country.

Pollution reduces the quantity of usable freshwater and increases health risks.

Constitutional and Federal Dimensions of Water Governance

Water as a State Subject

Under the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution:

• Water primarily falls under the State List (Entry 17)

States are responsible for:

• Irrigation
• Water supply
• Canal systems
• Groundwater management

Union Government’s Role

The Union can legislate on inter-State rivers under:

• Entry 56 of the Union List

This creates a complex federal framework where both Union and States influence water governance.

Article 262

Article 262 empowers Parliament to adjudicate inter-State river water disputes.

Parliament enacted:

• Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956

to resolve river-sharing conflicts.

Important Inter-State Water Disputes

India has witnessed several major disputes:

• Cauvery dispute
• Krishna dispute
• Ravi-Beas dispute
• Mahadayi dispute

These conflicts highlight the political and federal complexities of water governance.

Institutional Architecture of Water Governance

Ministry of Jal Shakti

Created in 2019 by merging:

• Ministry of Water Resources
• Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation

It acts as the nodal ministry for:

• Water resources
• Drinking water
• Sanitation
• River development

Central Water Commission (CWC)

The CWC is responsible for:

• Surface water planning
• Flood management
• River basin development
• Technical guidance

Central Ground Water Board (CGWB)

The CGWB:

• Assesses groundwater resources
• Conducts aquifer mapping
• Provides scientific data for groundwater management

NITI Aayog and Water Governance

NITI Aayog introduced the:

• Composite Water Management Index (CWMI)

The index evaluates States on:

• Irrigation efficiency
• Groundwater management
• Drinking water
• Watershed development

It aims to improve competitive and evidence-based governance.

Major Government Initiatives

Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM)

Launched in 2019, the mission aims to provide:

• Functional Household Tap Connections (FHTCs)
  to all rural households.

The programme focuses on:

• Drinking water access
• Water quality
• Community participation
• Source sustainability

The mission has significantly expanded rural tap water coverage.

Importance

Access to safe drinking water:

• Improves public health
• Reduces disease burden
• Benefits women and children by reducing water collection burdens

Atal Bhujal Yojana

This scheme targets groundwater sustainability in water-stressed regions.

It promotes:

• Participatory aquifer management
• Water budgeting
• Community monitoring

The programme reflects a shift from top-down regulation toward local participation.

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY)

The scheme seeks to improve irrigation efficiency through:

• “Per Drop More Crop”
• Micro-irrigation
• Watershed development

Agriculture consumes nearly 80% of India’s freshwater resources, making irrigation reform critical.

Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)

AMRUT aims to improve:

• Urban water supply
• Sewerage systems
• Wastewater treatment
• Urban infrastructure

Urban water governance is increasingly important due to rapid urbanisation.

Namami Gange Programme

The programme combines:

• River cleaning
• Sewage treatment
• Riverfront development
• Biodiversity conservation
• Ecological restoration

It represents a basin-based approach to river management.

The Need for Integrated Water Resource Management

Traditional water governance often treated:

• Surface water
• Groundwater
• Irrigation
• Drinking water
• Wastewater

as separate sectors.

Modern approaches advocate:

Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM)

IWRM promotes coordinated management of:

• Water
• Land
• Ecosystems

to maximise social and economic welfare without compromising ecological sustainability.

Core Principles of IWRM

River Basin Approach
Water should be managed at the river basin level rather than through fragmented administrative boundaries.

Participatory Governance
Local communities, farmers and urban residents should participate in decision-making.

Ecological Sustainability
Wetlands, rivers and aquifers must be protected as ecological assets rather than merely economic resources.

Circular Water Economy

A circular water economy aims to:

• Reduce wastage
• Recycle wastewater
• Improve efficiency
• Reuse treated water

This approach is becoming increasingly important for water-stressed countries.

Wastewater Reuse

Treated wastewater can be used for:

• Industry
• Agriculture
• Urban landscaping

This reduces pressure on freshwater resources.

Cities such as Chennai and Nagpur have initiated wastewater reuse models for industrial purposes.

Efficient Irrigation Practices

Technologies such as:

• Drip irrigation
• Sprinkler irrigation
• Precision agriculture

can significantly reduce water consumption.

Crop Diversification

Water-intensive crops such as:

• Paddy
• Sugarcane

are often cultivated in ecologically unsuitable regions.

Encouraging less water-intensive crops can improve sustainability.

Climate Change and Water Security

Climate change is intensifying water-related risks through:

• Erratic monsoons
• Floods
• Droughts
• Glacier retreat
• Sea-level rise

The Himalayan glaciers, which feed major river systems, are vulnerable to warming temperatures.

Climate-resilient water governance is therefore becoming essential for:

• Food security
• Energy security
• Urban resilience

Challenges in India’s Water Governance

Institutional Fragmentation

Multiple agencies operate with overlapping mandates, creating:

• Coordination failures
• Administrative duplication
• Policy inconsistency

Weak Groundwater Regulation

Groundwater extraction remains poorly regulated despite severe depletion.

In many regions, groundwater functions as an open-access resource.

Urban Water Mismanagement

Cities face:

• Leakages
• Non-revenue water losses
• Poor sewage treatment
• Encroachment of water bodies

Urban planning often neglects hydrological sustainability.

Inadequate Data and Monitoring

Reliable real-time water data remains limited.

Effective governance requires:

• Aquifer mapping
• Water accounting
• Digital monitoring systems

Socio-Economic Inequality

Marginalised communities often face:

• Unequal access to safe water
• Poor sanitation
• Higher vulnerability to droughts and contamination

Thus, water governance is also linked to social justice.

Way Forward

Strengthening Local Water Governance

Gram Panchayats, urban local bodies and water user associations should play a greater role in:

• Water budgeting
• Source protection
• Local monitoring

Decentralised governance improves accountability and sustainability.

Promoting Aquifer-Based Groundwater Management

Groundwater governance should shift toward:

• Scientific aquifer mapping
• Community regulation
• Participatory water budgeting

This can reduce over-extraction.

Expanding Wastewater Recycling

Indian cities should invest in:

• Sewage treatment infrastructure
• Wastewater reuse systems
• Industrial water recycling

This is essential for long-term urban water security.

Improving Agricultural Water Efficiency

Policy reforms should encourage:

• Crop diversification
• Micro-irrigation
• Climate-resilient agriculture

Water pricing and incentives should discourage wasteful extraction.

Adopting River Basin Management

Integrated river basin authorities can improve:

• Inter-State coordination
• Ecological management
• Flood and drought planning

This is particularly important for transboundary rivers.

Leveraging Technology and Data

Use of:

• Remote sensing
• GIS mapping
• AI-based forecasting
• Smart metering

can improve evidence-based water governance.

Protecting Ecosystems

Wetlands, forests and rivers must be treated as natural infrastructure that supports:

• Groundwater recharge
• Flood control
• Biodiversity
• Climate resilience

Ecological restoration should become central to water policy.

Conclusion

India’s water challenge is fundamentally a governance challenge shaped by institutional capacity, ecological sustainability and social equity. Although the country receives substantial rainfall, inefficient management, groundwater overexploitation, pollution and fragmented governance have created conditions of increasing water stress.

The future of India’s water security will depend not only on increasing supply but also on transforming governance systems through scientific planning, technological innovation, ecological conservation and participatory institutions. A sustainable and equitable water future requires moving from fragmented management toward integrated and circular water governance frameworks.

UPSC Practice Questions

Prelims MCQ 1

With reference to water governance in India, consider the following statements:

1. Water is primarily a State subject under the Constitution of India.
2. Article 262 relates to adjudication of inter-State river water disputes.
3. The Central Ground Water Board is responsible for groundwater assessment and aquifer management studies.

How many of the above statements are correct?

(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) All three
(d) None

Answer: (c) All three

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct because water falls under Entry 17 of the State List.
• Statement 2 is correct as Article 262 deals with inter-State river water disputes.
• Statement 3 is correct because CGWB undertakes groundwater assessment and aquifer studies.

Prelims MCQ 2

Which of the following initiatives specifically focuses on participatory groundwater management in water-stressed regions?

(a) Namami Gange Programme
(b) Atal Bhujal Yojana
(c) AMRUT Mission
(d) Jal Jeevan Mission

Answer: (b) Atal Bhujal Yojana

Explanation:

Atal Bhujal Yojana promotes community-based groundwater management and water budgeting in water-stressed regions.

UPSC Mains Questions

1. Examine the institutional and ecological challenges associated with water governance in India. Suggest measures required for achieving sustainable and integrated water resource management.
2. India’s water crisis is increasingly becoming a governance challenge rather than merely a problem of physical scarcity. Discuss.

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