GS Paper 3 practice questions for UPSC Mains 2026.

Introduction: Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam 2023 notified December 2023; India's updated NDC commits to an additional carbon sink of 2.5-3 billion tonnes CO2e by 2030.

Body: 1) Key changes — exemption for security infrastructure within 100 km of borders, linear projects up to 10 ha, eco-tourism. 2) Judicial review — SC interim order in Ashok Kumar Sharma vs Union (Feb 2024) applied Godavarman "dictionary meaning" of forest. 3) Carbon-sink impact — risk of denotifying deemed forests reduces sink target.

Way forward: Notify rules implementing SC "dictionary meaning" definition; state-wise deemed-forest inventory in 6 months; mandatory compensatory afforestation audits under CAMPA Act 2016; align with NDC.

Introduction: India has 89 Ramsar sites (2025) and four biodiversity hotspots — Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Western Ghats, Sundaland; Khasi Hills REDD+ became India's first Plan Vivo community carbon project; All India Tiger Estimation 2022 reported 3,682 tigers.

Body: 1) Successes — Project Tiger 1973, Project Elephant 1992, MISHTI mangrove scheme. 2) Community model — Khasi Hills REDD+ aggregates 62 villages, generates carbon credits. 3) Gaps — wetland degradation, human-wildlife conflict.

Way forward: Scale community carbon projects; strengthen Wetland Rules 2017; expand Project Cheetah and CAMPA-funded restoration.

Introduction: National Clean Air Programme launched January 2019, revised target of 40% reduction in PM2.5/PM10 by 2025-26 over 2017 baseline; CAQM Act 2021 created the Commission for Air Quality Management for NCR and adjoining areas; CPCB AQI 2025 records winter PM2.5 in Delhi at 250-400 µg/m³ against WHO 5 µg/m³ annual.

Body: 1) NCAP — 131 non-attainment cities; ₹10,000+ crore disbursed via 15th FC grants. 2) Airshed governance — CAQM Act covers 5 states; GRAP stages I-IV. 3) Gaps — stubble burning, ULBs under-resourced, slow source-apportionment science.

Way forward: Statutory airshed plans for IGP; expand SAFAR-style real-time monitoring; mandatory crop-residue management with PUSA decomposer; phase out unfit BS-IV trucks.

Introduction: Plastic Waste Management Amendment Rules 2022 banned 19 single-use plastic items from 1 July 2022; CPCB EPR Portal operationalised 2022 covers plastic, e-waste, battery, tyre, used oil; India generated 4.13 million tonnes plastic waste in 2020-21 (CPCB Annual Report).

Body: 1) EPR mechanics — registration, credit certificates, audit. 2) E-waste Rules 2022 — producer responsibility, refurbisher registration; 1.6 million tonnes generated FY22. 3) Battery Waste Rules 2022 cover EV batteries.

Way forward: Strengthen state-level enforcement; mandatory eco-modulation of EPR fees; expand EPR to glass and textiles; UN Global Plastics Treaty ratification.

Introduction: Installed solar capacity crossed 100 GW in early 2025 (MNRE); PM-Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana approved 29 February 2024 with ₹75,021 crore outlay to install rooftop solar in 1 crore households by FY27.

Body: 1) Mechanics — central financial assistance up to ₹78,000/household; ~300 units/month free. 2) Challenges — DISCOM net-metering caps, vendor onboarding, financing for low-income households. 3) Grid integration — RE round-the-clock tenders, BESS PLI ₹18,100 crore.

Way forward: Mandatory gross-metering above 10 kW; deepen Surya Ghar finance through PSL; co-locate with BESS for evening peak.

Introduction: Biological Diversity (Amendment) Act 2023 enacted August 2023; CBD COP15 adopted Kunming-Montreal GBF on 19 December 2022 with 23 targets including the 30×30 conservation target.

Body: 1) Key amendments — exempts codified traditional knowledge from prior NBA approval; AYUSH practitioners exemption; decriminalisation with monetary penalties. 2) Concerns — dilutes consent of Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs); risk to ABS revenue. 3) GBF alignment — National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (updated 2024) targets 30×30, restoration of 30% degraded ecosystems.

Way forward: Strengthen BMC role under amended Rules 2024; codify benefit-sharing percentages; align CITES enforcement; Cali Fund participation post-CBD COP16.

Introduction: IMD recorded 536 heatwave days across India in summer 2024 — highest in 14 years; ~46% of Indian cities have a Heat Action Plan (Centre for Policy Research 2023); NDMA released revised guidelines on heatwave management in 2019.

Body: 1) HAP architecture — IMD forecasts, state DM Departments, municipal cooling centres, ASHA mobilisation. 2) Gaps — most HAPs lack funding, vulnerability mapping, and accountability; informal-sector workers excluded. 3) Notification gap — heatwave not yet a 'notified disaster' under SDRF for compensation.

Way forward: Notify heatwave under DM Act 2005 categories; bind HAPs to ULB budgets; cool-roof retrofitting under PMAY-U 2.0; ESI/EPF heat-relief payouts.

Introduction: WHO and UNEP define microplastics as plastic particles <5 mm; UNEA-5.2 (March 2022) mandated an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) to draft a legally binding instrument by end-2024 (Busan INC-5 inconclusive Nov 2024); India generates ~4.13 million tonnes plastic waste/year (CPCB).

Body: 1) Health impacts — endocrine disruption, cardiovascular risk (Marfella study 2024, NEJM). 2) Indian regulatory gap — no microplastic-specific Rule; BIS pending standard. 3) Pathways — primary (cosmetics, pellets) and secondary (degradation).

Way forward: BIS microplastic monitoring standard; ban primary microbeads in cosmetics; ratify Global Plastics Treaty; mandate filters in washing machines.

Introduction: MHA data (2025) records LWE incidents at ~370 in 2024 vs 2,213 in 2010, a ~83% decline; LWE-affected districts cut from 126 to 38 (as of April 2024); Home Minister has set March 2026 deadline to end LWE.

Body: 1) SAMADHAN doctrine — Smart leadership, Aggressive strategy, Motivation, Actionable intelligence, Dashboard-based KPI, Harnessing technology, Action plan, No access to financing. 2) Development — Aspirational Districts Programme, road construction under RCPLWEA. 3) Security forces — CRPF, COBRA, State Police.

Way forward: Sustain ADP investments; deepen FRA 2006 implementation in Bastar; financial-flow choke via PMLA; rehabilitation policy for cadres.

Introduction: AFSPA 1958 'disturbed area' coverage cut by 70% from 2014 levels (MHA 2024); Manipur ethnic violence since 3 May 2023 has displaced ~60,000 people and seen 200+ deaths; Free Movement Regime with Myanmar suspended in 2024.

Body: 1) Architecture — Assam Rifles, state police, IB, NSA; Bilateral Liaison Mechanism with Myanmar. 2) Manipur drivers — ST-status dispute, drug economy, cross-border arms. 3) FMR suspension — fencing 1,643 km Myanmar border; refugee management gap.

Way forward: President's rule review in Manipur; tri-partite political dialogue with ethnic groups; ratify a refugee policy framework; complete border fencing with displaced-people corridors; AFSPA full rollback district-by-district.

Introduction: Pahalgam terror attack on 22 April 2025 killed 26 civilians; India launched Operation Sindoor on 7 May 2025; UAPA conviction rate ~27% (NCRB 2023); SC in Bail is the rule (UAPA bail-speedy-trial line) reiterated speedy trial under Article 21.

Body: 1) Legal framework — UAPA 1967 (amended 2019 individual designation), NIA Act 2008, PMLA 2002. 2) Institutional response — NIA jurisdiction expanded, NATGRID operational, Multi-Agency Centre. 3) International — FATF action; LeT, JeM, TRF designation push at UN 1267.

Way forward: NIA capacity audit; ratify ICRMT and ICSANT comprehensively; speedy-trial benchmarks for UAPA; review individual designation under Section 35.

Introduction: CERT-In handled 16.05 lakh cybersecurity incidents in 2024 (CERT-In Annual Report); AIIMS Delhi ransomware attack (23 Nov 2022) compromised 5 servers; National Cyber Security Policy 2013 awaits update.

Body: 1) Institutional stack — CERT-In (CERT-In.org.in) under MeitY, NCIIPC under NTRO, I4C under MHA, Defence Cyber Agency under CDS. 2) CII framework — Section 70 IT Act, NCIIPC empanelled sectors (power, finance, transport, telecom, government). 3) Gaps — no Cybersecurity Act, fragmented breach notification, weak SME hygiene.

Way forward: Pass Cybersecurity Act/National Cybersecurity Strategy; mandatory breach disclosure under DPDP Rules; CERT-In 6-hour reporting reform; bug-bounty programmes for CII.

Introduction: NCRP and CFCFRMS (toll-free 1930) recorded over 36 lakh complaints in 2024 with reported losses exceeding ₹22,800 crore (I4C); BNS 2023 Sections 318-319 cover cheating and impersonation; mule-account ecosystem identified as a key vector.

Body: 1) I4C ecosystem — NCRP portal, 1930 helpline, CyTrain LMS, Joint Cyber Coordination Teams. 2) Bank coordination — RBI's positive-pay system, NPCI fraud-risk-management. 3) Cross-border — fraud farms in SE Asia, MLAT bottlenecks.

Way forward: Statutory backing for 1930; Real-time API for bank freeze; bilateral cyber-MoUs with Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar; AI-based mule-account detection.

Introduction: PMLA conviction rate ~24 of 7,083 cases (PRS Legislative 2024); SC in Vijay Madanlal Choudhary vs Union of India (27 July 2022) upheld ED's wide powers; FATF Mutual Evaluation Report (Sept 2024) placed India in regular follow-up — strongest rating among major economies.

Body: 1) PMLA architecture — predicate offence + proceeds of crime; Section 17 search, Section 19 arrest, Section 24 reverse onus; FIU-IND under Section 12. 2) ED expansion — 7,083 cases registered as of 2024; attachment of ₹1.21 lakh crore. 3) Concerns — low conviction, ECIR not shared with accused, bail twin conditions Section 45.

Way forward: Codify ECIR sharing; statutory time-limit for trial; review reverse-onus clause; strengthen FIU's STR analytics; align with Section 66 BNSS bail jurisprudence.

Introduction: MoF notification 7 March 2023 brought VDAs under PMLA; CBDT levies 30% tax + 1% TDS (Finance Act 2022); India committed to OECD Crypto Asset Reporting Framework with first exchange of information by 2027.

Body: 1) PMLA coverage — FIU-IND registration of crypto exchanges; KYC, STR obligations. 2) Show-cause to offshore exchanges 2023-24 (Binance, KuCoin etc.). 3) Gap — no comprehensive legislative framework; G20 IMF-FSB synthesis paper guidance.

Way forward: Pass Crypto-asset Regulation Bill; operationalise CARF; license-based regime via IFSCA at GIFT City; investor-protection rules.

Introduction: MHA (Border Management Division 2024) records 15,106.7 km land borders; CIBMS launched 2017 with pilots on Indo-Bangladesh and Indo-Pakistan borders; BSF, ITBP, SSB, AR are border-guarding forces.

Body: 1) CIBMS components — sensors, fence, command centres, smart fences. 2) Sector-specific — China LAC infrastructure under BRO (Vibrant Villages Programme 2023, ₹4,800 crore), Myanmar fencing 1,643 km, India-Bangladesh dual-use rivers. 3) Gaps — fence breaches, cattle smuggling, drug corridor.

Way forward: Complete CIBMS rollout; UAV-based ISR integration; faster land-port commerce via LPAI; Vibrant Villages Phase II.

Introduction: 7,516.6 km coastline (MoEFCC 2024); Coastal Security Scheme Phase III rolled out from 2020-21 (~₹1,950 crore); Joint Operations Centres operationalised at Mumbai, Visakhapatnam, Kochi, Port Blair; National Committee on Strengthening Maritime and Coastal Security (NCSMCS) chaired by Cabinet Secretary.

Body: 1) Architecture — Indian Navy (overall), Coast Guard (territorial), Marine Police (12 nm), Customs, MPA. 2) Gaps — fishermen vessel identification (only ~50% have AIS class-B transponders), small-port surveillance, DRI-Customs coordination. 3) Sagarmala-era — port-led development raises commercial-security trade-off.

Way forward: Universal AIS for fishing vessels; CCTV-AIS at all minor ports; integrate Information Fusion Centre IOR (Gurugram); empower MPA training.

Introduction: Disaster Management (Amendment) Act 2024 received Presidential assent on 1 March 2025; original DM Act 2005 enacted 26 December 2005 after Indian Ocean tsunami; CRF and SDRF allocations for 2021-26 stand at ₹1,28,122.40 crore (15th FC).

Body: 1) Key changes — NDMA prepares plans (earlier only mandated); statutory backing for NCMC, HLC; new UDMA for state-capital and million-plus cities; NDMA chairperson appointed by PM. 2) Federal tension — states see encroachment on List II 'Public health, Sanitation'. 3) Financing — SDMF and NDMF created; gap in heatwave notification.

Way forward: Notify rules for UDMA; ring-fence SDMF/NDMF allocations; include heatwave under SDRF; align with Sendai Framework 2015-2030 targets.

Introduction: IMD recorded 8 cyclonic storms in the North Indian Ocean basin in 2023 (above climatological average of ~5); Cyclone Biparjoy (June 2023) had ~14-day track — longest ever recorded over Arabian Sea (IMD).

Body: 1) Response chain — IMD forecast, NDMA SOP, NDRF pre-positioning, SDMA evacuation, ISRO Mausam dissemination. 2) Successes — near-zero casualties in Cyclone Biparjoy. 3) Gaps — compound flood-cyclone events, post-cyclone livelihood restoration.

Way forward: Compound-event modelling; CDRI-led infrastructure resilience; mandatory cyclone shelters under PMAY-G coastal blocks.

Introduction: South Lhonak GLOF (3-4 October 2023) destroyed the 1,200 MW Teesta-III dam in Sikkim and killed 100+; ISRO Cartosat mapped 38 high-risk glacial lakes in Indian Himalaya (2024); NDMA Guidelines on GLOF 2020.

Body: 1) Drivers — climate warming, lake expansion, moraine instability. 2) Response — early-warning siren systems pilot at 7 lakes by NDMA; coordination CWC-IMD-Geological Survey. 3) Infrastructure exposure — hydropower projects in the cascade.

Way forward: Universal early-warning at high-risk lakes; mandatory GLOF risk-rating before clearances; siphon-and-pump pilot at Lhonak; relocation of vulnerable settlements.