26 March 2026 Current Affairs for UPSC

Why in News?

Recently, the Union Cabinet has approved India’s updated Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) for 2031-2035. The new targets commit to enhanced climate ambition under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement. 

What are Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)?

• NDCs are submitted every five years to the UNFCCC secretariat. They specify how much a country will reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and how it will adapt to climate change. 
• NDCs are climate action plans prepared by each country under the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) as part of the Paris Agreement (COP21). 

India’s Nationally Determined Contribution (2031-2035):

• The new NDC (2031-2035) enhances the climate pledges set in India’s first NDC (2015), which were further revised and updated in 2021-2022.

Table of Comparison across successive NDC commitments:

Other Climate Goals:

Apart from the three major commitments, the government laid out other climate goals, including:

• Climate-friendly and cleaner path of economic development
• Resilient infrastructure to combat climate change effects like sudden rain and cloudbursts
• Promoting the Prime Minister’s Lifestyle for Environment (LiFE) mission that urges people to adopt sustainable daily habits
• Developing low-cost, long-term finance mechanisms for green energy
• Capacity building and research and development through technology and international collaborations. 

UPSC Prelims PYQ (2016)

Q. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN, and it will go into effect in 2017.
2. The Agreement aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1 and 3 only

(b) 2 only

(c) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (b) 

UPSC Mains PYQ (2021)

Q. Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference?

Why in News?

The Supreme Court of India (March 2026) clarified that a person cannot retain Scheduled Caste (SC) status after converting to religions other than Hinduism, Sikhism, or Buddhism.

UPSC Relevance:

GS-I: Salient features of Indian society – caste system, communalism, regionalism. Role of religion in social structure.

GS-II: Welfare Schemes & Social Justice Reservation policy.

GS-IV (Ethics): Ethical dimensions: Equality vs. justice, balancing individual religious freedom with group rights.

What are Scheduled Castes?

• Scheduled Castes (SCs) are communities historically subjected to untouchability and social discrimination in India.
• They are notified by the President under Article 341 of the Constitution through the Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order, 1950.
• SCs are entitled to reservations in Parliament, State Legislatures, government jobs (15%), educational institutions, and protections under the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989.

What is the Core Issue?

The debate revolves around:

What Constitution & Laws says?

1. Constitutional Basis

• Article 341:
  • President specifies SCs for each state.
  • Parliament can amend the list.

2. Key Law: Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order, 1950

Therefore, SC status is religion-linked (legally), not purely caste-based.

The Case: Chinthada Anand v. State of Andhra Pradesh

 What is Supreme Court’s 2026 Ruling?

Core Judgment

• Supreme Court reiterates that SC status is restricted to Hindus, Sikhs, and Buddhists, excluding converts to other religions.

Reasoning of Court

1. Historical Context Argument
   • SC category created to address caste-based discrimination rooted in Hindu social structure.
2. Absence of Caste in Other Religions (Legal View)
   • Court assumes caste system is not institutionally present in Islam/Christianity.
3. Reservation Purpose
   • SC benefits are meant for:
     • Social stigma
     • Untouchability
     • Historical oppression
       Linked to specific socio-religious context

 What was the Earlier Judicial Position?

• Courts have consistently held:
  • Conversion leads to loss of SC benefits
  • Retaining SC benefits after conversion = “fraud on Constitution” (HC view)
• However:
  • Some courts have also said Caste by birth may socially persist even after conversion

 Constitutional Articles Involved

Comparison: SC vs ST

Arguments IN FAVOUR of the Judgement (Denying SC status after conversion)

1. Constitutional validity
   SC status is defined under Article 341 of the Indian Constitution and the Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order, 1950. These legally restrict SC recognition to specific religions, making the policy constitutionally valid.
2. Historical basis of caste oppression
   SC category was created to address untouchability rooted in Hindu social structure. Conversion is seen as a departure from that system, reducing the original basis for classification.
3. Targeted welfare approach
   Reservations are meant for specific historically disadvantaged groups. Expanding SC status to all converts may dilute benefits and reduce effectiveness of affirmative action.
4. Prevention of misuse
   Allowing SC status post-conversion may lead to strategic conversions while retaining benefits. This can distort the purpose of reservations and create unfair advantages.
5. Religious doctrine argument
   Islam and Christianity do not formally recognize caste hierarchies. Hence, legally, the basis for SC classification becomes weak after conversion.

6. Judicial consistency
   The Supreme Court of India has repeatedly upheld this position. Maintaining continuity ensures legal certainty and administrative clarity.
7. Administrative simplicity
   Religion-based classification makes identification easier. Including sociological factors across religions would complicate implementation and verification.

Arguments AGAINST (Supporting SC status after conversion)

1. Caste persists socially
   Even after conversion, caste-based discrimination continues in practice. Dalit Christians and Muslims still face exclusion, proving caste is social, not purely religious.
2. Violation of equality (Article 14)
   People of the same caste origin are treated differently based on religion. This creates unequal treatment and undermines substantive equality.
3. Restriction on religious freedom
   Under Article 25 of the Indian Constitution, individuals can freely convert. Losing SC benefits acts as a disincentive, indirectly restricting this freedom.
4. Contradicts abolition of untouchability
   Untouchability is abolished under Article 17 irrespective of religion. Denying protection to converted individuals ignores this constitutional mandate.
5. Policy inconsistency (SC vs ST)
   Scheduled Tribes retain status irrespective of religion, while SCs do not. This inconsistency raises questions about the logic of religion-based exclusion.
6. Arbitrary distinction between religions
   Sikhs and Buddhists were included later (1956, 1990) — the distinction between these religions and Christianity/Islam is arbitrary.

7. Double disadvantage
   Converted Dalits often remain socially marginalized but lose state benefits. This leads to further vulnerability rather than empowerment.
8. Ignoring empirical evidence
   Commissions like the Ranganath Misra Commission found caste discrimination persists across religions. The current policy does not reflect these findings.
9. Against secular principles
   Linking benefits to religion indirectly encourages individuals to remain within certain religions. This goes against the secular nature of the state.

Way Forward

1. Revisit the legal framework
   The Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order, 1950 should be re-examined in light of present social realities. Parliament can amend it to make SC status more inclusive if needed.
2. Evidence-based policymaking
   Government should rely on empirical data on caste discrimination across religions. Findings of bodies like the Ranganath Misra Commission must be seriously evaluated.
3. Shift from religion to discrimination-based criteria
   Affirmative action should focus on actual experience of social exclusion rather than religious identity. This will ensure more just and targeted welfare.
4. Judicial clarity through Constitution Bench
   A larger bench of the Supreme Court of India can settle the issue comprehensively. This will reduce ambiguity and ensure uniform interpretation.
5. Balance equality and religious freedom
   Policy reforms must harmonize Article 14 of the Indian Constitution (equality) and Article 25 of the Indian Constitution (freedom of religion). No individual should be forced to choose between rights and benefits.
6. Explore alternative categorization
   Instead of extending SC status, a separate category or sub-quota can be considered for marginalized converts. This avoids dilution while ensuring inclusion.
7. Strengthen anti-discrimination laws
   Legal protection against caste discrimination should be enforced across religions. Laws must recognize that caste-based exclusion is a social reality beyond religion.
8. Periodic review mechanism
   Reservation policies should be periodically reviewed to reflect changing social conditions. Static classifications may not address dynamic inequalities.
9. Promote social reform alongside legal reform
   Legal changes alone are insufficient; awareness and social reform are needed to eliminate caste discrimination in all religions.
10. Ensure political consensus
    Given the sensitivity of the issue, reforms should be undertaken through broad political and social consensus to avoid polarization.

Conclusion:

The issue reflects a deeper conflict between legal formalism and social justice. While the current framework ensures targeted benefits, it fails to fully capture the continuing reality of caste-based discrimination across religions. A balanced approach requires data-driven reform and constitutional reinterpretation to ensure that affirmative action remains both just and inclusive

Practice Mains Questions:

1.  “Denial of Scheduled Caste status after conversion raises concerns regarding equality and religious freedom.” Discuss with suitable arguments.
2. “Affirmative action policies must be guided not only by legal provisions but also by lived social realities.” Critically examine this statement in the context of caste-based reservations and religious conversion
3. Case Study: Ramesh, belonging to a Scheduled Caste Hindu family in rural Andhra Pradesh, converted to Christianity five years ago and became an active pastor in a local church. He continues to live in the same locality and faces social ostracisation and casteist slurs from dominant caste groups. Last month, he was physically assaulted and abused using his caste name. Ramesh approached the police seeking protection under the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989. The police refused to register the case citing the recent Supreme Court judgment that SC status is lost upon conversion. 
   (a) What are the ethical dilemmas involved in this situation from the perspective of the police officer?
   (b) As a District Collector, how would you balance the principles of secularism, social justice, and rule of law in handling such cases? Suggest a practical course of action.
   (c) Critically analyse whether rigid adherence to the 1950 SC Order in such cases upholds or undermines constitutional morality.

Why in News?

• Union Budget 2026 announced and recently Government proposed BioPharma SHAKTI to boost biologics and biosimilars in India.
• Shift from animal testing → human-relevant non-animal methodologies (NAMs) is gaining importance globally.

UPSC Relevance

GS-II: Health sector policies, Regulatory institutions

GS –III: Biotechnology, Science & Tech in healthcare

GS-IV: Ethics of animal testing

What are Drugs? The Two Categories

Types of Biologics

What are Biologics and Biosimilars and their difference?

• Biologics:
  • Complex, large-molecule drugs produced using living cells (bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells).
  • Examples: Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), vaccines, insulin, CAR-T cell therapies, growth factors.
  • Unlike traditional small-molecule chemical drugs (e.g., paracetamol), biologics are highly specific, target particular receptors/proteins, and are sensitive to manufacturing processes.
  • Used for chronic/non-communicable diseases (NCDs): Cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, autoimmune disorders, Alzheimer’s.
  • Global market growing rapidly due to rising NCD burden.
• Biosimilars:
  • Highly similar (not identical) versions of approved biologics, produced after the original patent expires. They are “generic” equivalents but require rigorous similarity testing (not simple chemical copying).
  • Cheaper alternatives that improve access and affordability.
• Why important for India? India is the “pharmacy of the world” (strong in generics), but weak in high-value biologics/biosimilars. Domestic production reduces import dependence and positions India as a global hub.

Problem with Traditional Drug Testing

Animal Testing (Traditional Method)

• Drugs tested on animals (mice, monkeys) before human trials
• Issue: Animals ≠ Humans biologically

Real Case Example: Northwick Park Tragedy

• In 2006, drug theralizumab caused:
  • Severe immune reaction
  • Organ failure in humans
• However, the same drug had shown no harmful effects in animal testing, especially in monkeys.
• This incident demonstrated that animal models may fail to capture human-specific immune responses.

Why This Problem is Severe for Biologics

• Biologcs interact with specific human receptors
• These receptors may:
  • Not exist in animals
  • Function differently

Solution: Non-Animal Methodologies (NAMs)

What are NAMs?

• Non-animal methodologies (NAMs) are advanced scientific techniques that use human cells, tissues, or computational models instead of animals. These methods aim to replicate human biological conditions more accurately.

Types of NAMs

1. Organoids

• Organoids are miniature, lab-grown versions of human organs created from stem cells. They replicate key structural and functional features of real organs, allowing precise testing of drug effects.
• Example: mini brain, liver

2. Organ-on-a-chip

• An Organ-on-a-Chip (OOC) is a multi-channel microfluidic cell culture device —essentially credit-card sized chips with living human cells — designed to Mimic blood flow, tissue interaction and simulate the key activities, mechanics, and physiological responses of a living human organ or organ system in a controlled, in-vitro environment. These thumb-drive-sized devices contain hollow channels lined with living human cells and tissues, providing a more accurate model of human biology than traditional two-dimensional cell cultures or animal testing
• Use: Lung-on-chip, gut-on-chip, heart-on-chip to test drug absorption, toxicity, and immune responses.

Practical Example

• A breast cancer-on-chip model was developed to test CAR T-cell therapy, which is a cutting-edge biologic treatment. The model recreated the tumour environment, including blood vessels and immune interactions.
• NAMs (breast cancer-on-chip) allow researchers to model this challenge without animals.
• This allowed scientists to study how immune cells attack cancer cells, helping assess both effectiveness and safety without relying on animal testing.

3. 3D Bioprinting

• 3D bioprinting involves printing human tissues using living cells, which can mimic real organ structures.
• This allows researchers to test drugs in environments that closely resemble the human body.

Key Advantage

These models:

• Replicate human physiology better
• Improve accuracy of drug testing

Benefits of NAMs

1. Better Predictability

• More accurate than animal models
• Reduces clinical trial failures

2. Cost Reduction

• Drug development cost reduced by 10–26%

3. Faster Development

• Time for drug optimisation reduced (~19%)

4. Ethical Advantage

• Reduces animal suffering
• Aligns with global ethical standards

5. Personalised medicine

• Patient-derived organoids allow testing of drug efficacy on individual’s own cells

6. Disease modelling

• Can recreate rare diseases and complex tumour microenvironments not possible in standard animals

What is BioPharma SHAKTI?

• Government initiative (Budget 2026)
• Outlay: ₹10,000 crore

Objectives:

• Boost biologics manufacturing
• Promote biosimilars
• Strengthen R&D ecosystem

Importance for India

1. Healthcare

• Cheaper biologics → better access
• Affordable biosimilars can significantly improve access to advanced treatments for diseases like cancer and diabetes.

2. Economic Growth

• Biologics represent a high-value segment of the pharmaceutical industry, offering opportunities for exports and employment generation.

3. Global Competitiveness

• India can become:
  • Biologics hub
  • Alternative to Western pharma

What are the Challenges?

• Limited Industry Adoption
  • Although many academic institutions in India are working on NAMs, their translation into industry applications remains weak.

• Infrastructure Constraints
  • Developing and scaling NAM technologies require advanced infrastructure and sustained funding, which are currently limited.

• Regulatory Uncertainty
  • The Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation is still evolving guidelines for integrating NAMs, leading to uncertainty for companies.

• Patent Evergreening
  • Pharmaceutical companies often extend patents through minor modifications, delaying the entry of affordable biosimilars.

• Investment Gaps
  • Investors in India are often unfamiliar with the biologics sector, leading to limited funding for startups and innovation.

Global Trends

• Countries like UK moving to:
  • Phase out animal testing
• India:
  • New Drugs and Clinical Trials (Amendment) Rules, 2023 support NAMs

But still lagging in implementation

Key Concepts

Critical Analysis

Positives

• Scientific advancement
• Ethical improvement
• Economic opportunity

Concerns

• Regulatory readiness low
• High cost of technology
• Slow industry adoption

Way Forward

• Strengthen:
  • Industry-academia collaboration
• Provide:
  • Regulatory clarity for NAMs
• Invest in:
  • Infrastructure & startups
• Prevent:
  • Patent evergreening
• Promote:
  • Standardisation of NAMs

Conclusion

BioPharma SHAKTI’s ₹10,000 crore is a necessary but not sufficient condition for India’s biologics transformation. The real multiplier will come from building enabling systems — validated NAM protocols, expedited regulation, sustained funding, and a mature biologics entrepreneurship ecosystem — that allow many companies to innovate simultaneously, positioning India as the global hub for human-relevant drug testing.

Practice MCQs

With reference to biologics, consider the following statements:

1. Biologics are drugs produced from living organisms and are structurally complex.
2. Biosimilars are exact chemical copies of biologics similar to generic drugs.
3. Biologics are commonly used in treating chronic diseases like cancer and diabetes.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 1 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

 Answer: (a)

Consider the following statements regarding Non-Animal Methodologies (NAMs):

1. NAMs are based on human cells and tissues to replicate biological processes.
2. Organ-on-a-chip technology can simulate functions like blood flow and tissue interaction.
3. NAMs have completely replaced animal testing globally.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a)

Which of the following best explains the limitation of animal testing in biologics?

(a) Animals cannot be used in laboratory conditions
(b) Biologics interact with human-specific receptors that may differ in animals
(c) Animal testing is more expensive than human trials
(d) Animals do not respond to any drugs

 Answer: (b)

With reference to BioPharma SHAKTI, consider the following statements:

1. It was announced in the Union Budget 2026.
2. It aims to promote biologics and biosimilars manufacturing in India.
3. It focuses only on vaccine production.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 2 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

 Answer: (c)