Indian Literature

* Statement 1 is incorrect: Devichandraguptam is attributed to Vishakhadatta, a Sanskrit playwright. Bilhana was a poet who lived much later.

* Statement 2 is correct: Hammira-Mahakavya was written by Nayachandra Suri, a Jain scholar and poet.

* Statement 3 is incorrect: Milinda-Panha is a dialogue between Buddhist philosopher Nagasena and Indo-Greek King Milinda, focusing on Buddhist concepts like non-self (anatta) and nirvana. Nagasena belonged to the Hinayana tradition, while Nagarjuna, often confused with him, was a Mahayana scholar. For clarity in UPSC, refer to the Milinda-Panha philosopher as Nagasena.

* Statement 4 is correct: Nitivakyamrita was written by Somadeva Suri.

Thus, statements 2 and 4 are correct.

* 'Vattakirutal' as mentioned in Sangam poems is best explained by a king defeated in a battle who commits ritual suicide by starving himself to death.

* Sangam poems reflect a strong warrior culture in ancient Tamil society. Kings and warriors were expected to display courage and honour.

* Defeat in battle was considered a significant dishonour. Hence, Vattakirutal allowed a defeated king to avoid the humiliation of capture by the enemy.

* This form of suicide through starving was a ritualistic act, demonstrating the king's commitment to his honour and his unwillingness to compromise his dignity.

Sangam literature, which dates back to the Sangam period in ancient South India (c. 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE), does indeed contain references to the social classification of Varna. The poems provide insights into the societal structure of that time, including the division of society into different social groups or Varnas. Therefore, option b is correct.

Sangam poems often contain references to material culture, including descriptions of trade, agriculture, urban life, and everyday objects.

Sangam's poems frequently depict warrior ethics, with many poems glorifying valour, bravery, and military prowess.

Sangam literature includes references to various supernatural or magical forces, but these are typically presented as part of the cultural and religious beliefs of the time rather than being explicitly labelled as irrational.

Statement 1 is Incorrect: Nettipakarana is a Buddhist scripture (Theravada tradition) that serves as a guide to the interpretation of the Pali Canon. It is not associated with Jainism.

Statement 2 is Correct: Parishishtaparvan (also known as Sthaviravalicharitra) is a Jaina text written by the 12th-century scholar Hemachandra. It is an appendix to his larger work and provides historical accounts of early Jaina teachers.

Statement 3 is Incorrect: Avadanashataka is a collection of one hundred Buddhist legends (Avadanas) written in Sanskrit. The term 'Avadana' typically refers to Buddhist literature detailing the past lives and deeds of individuals.

Statement 4 is Correct: Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana (also known as the Mahapurana) is a major Jaina text composed by the Digambara monks Jinasena and Gunabhadra in the 9th century. It details the lives of the 63 'Great Men' (Shalakapurushas) of Jainism.

Nizamuddin Panipati, a Persian scholar, translated the "Yogavasistha" into Persian during the reign of Emperor Akbar, who ruled the Mughal Empire from 1556 to 1605. This translation occurred as part of Akbar's efforts to promote cultural exchange and translations of various works into Persian, the administrative language of the Mughal Empire.

Bhavabhuti, Hastimalla, and Kshemeshvara were renowned playwrights in ancient and early medieval India.

Bhavabhuti: An 8th-century scholar and playwright in the court of King Yashovarman of Kannauj. He is famous for his Sanskrit plays *Malatimadhava*, *Mahaviracharita*, and *Uttararamacharita*.

Hastimalla: A 13th-century Jain playwright who lived during the Hoysala period. He is known for his Sanskrit plays such as *Vikrantakaurava*, *Maithilikalyana*, and *Anjanapavananjaya*.

Kshemeshvara: A 10th-century playwright who served in the court of King Mahipala of the Pala dynasty. His notable works include the plays *Chandakaushika* and *Naishadhananda*.

Statement 1 is incorrect. Both Dayabhaga and Mitakshara are the basic to the upper castes alone. Mitakshara school is followed in most of India while Dayabhaga is followed in Bengal and Assam.

Statement 2 is correct. In the Dayabhaga system, sons obtain rights to property only at the death of the father, and in the Mitakshara school, the sons and grandsons have rights over his property even while he is alive.

Statement 3 is incorrect. Both Dayabhaga and Mitakshara schools of Hindu law dealt with women's property (stridhana). However, while the Mitakshara school imposed significant restrictions on women's control and excluded them from coparcenary, the Dayabhaga school was relatively liberal, recognizing widows as heirs and granting greater powers over property.

Statement 1 is Incorrect: Panini was a renowned Sanskrit grammarian who authored the 'Ashtadhyayi' around the 5th-4th century BCE. Pushyamitra Shunga, the founder of the Shunga dynasty, ruled much later in the 2nd century BCE. It was the grammarian Patanjali who was contemporary to and associated with Pushyamitra Shunga.

Statement 2 is Incorrect: Amarasimha was a Sanskrit grammarian and poet, famous for the 'Amarakosha'. He was one of the 'Navaratnas' (nine gems) in the court of the Gupta Emperor Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya), whereas Harshavardhana ruled the Pushyabhuti dynasty much later in the 7th century CE.

Statement 3 is Correct: Kalidasa is widely regarded as the greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist. He was one of the 'Navaratnas' in the court of Chandragupta II (r. 375-415 CE). His masterpiece works include 'Abhijnanashakuntalam', 'Meghaduta', 'Raghuvamsa', and 'Kumarasambhava'.

The memorizing of chronicles, dynastic histories, and Epic tales was the profession of Maagadha.

To make it easier to remember, let's break it down - Chronicles These are the records of historical events in chronological order. - Dynastic histories These detail the histories of dynasties or royal families. - Epic tales These are long, narrative poems about heroic deeds.

So, a Maagadha was essentially a historical storyteller or a keeper of history and legends.

Shramana: This term refers to ascetics and monks in Indian religious traditions like Jainism and Buddhism. They renounced worldly life to pursue spiritual enlightenment.

Parivraaj: Also known as Parivrajaka, this term refers to wandering mendicants or ascetics who renounced material life and traveled in search of spiritual wisdom.

Agrahaarika: This term is related to administrators or managers of agraharas (land grants given to Brahmins) and does not relate to the memorization of histories.

Malavikagnimitra: A play by Kalidasa, narrates the love story of King Agnimitra, the son of Pushyamitra Shunga, the founder of the Sunga dynasty.

Swapnavasavadatta: This Sanskrit play by Bhasa does not revolve around the Sunga dynasty.

Meghadoota: This poem by Kalidasa focuses on the pining of a separated Yaksha and doesn't involve historical figures.

Ratnavali: This play by Sri Harsha also doesn't have a connection to the Sunga dynasty or its rulers.

* 'Satyameva Jayate' (Truth alone triumphs ) is a mantra from the ancient Indian scripture Mundaka Upanishad.

* Following the independence of India, it was adopted as the national motto of India on 26 January 1950. It is inscribed in the script at the base of the national emblem. The emblem and the words 'Satyameva Jayate' are inscribed on one side of all Indian currency.

* The emblem is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka which was erected around 250 BCE at Sarnath, near Varanasi in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is inscribed on all currency notes and national documents.