India has more Ramsar-designated wetlands than almost any other country on Earth. And yet, it loses roughly 3% of its wetland area every decade to drainage, encroachment, and pollution. The paradox of being simultaneously a global leader in wetland recognition and a country rapidly destroying its wetlands is one of the sharpest tensions in India's environmental governance — and it's exactly the kind of tension UPSC Mains loves to probe.
What Are Wetlands?
Wetlands are areas where water is the primary factor controlling the environment and associated plant and animal life. They exist where the water table is at or near the surface, or where the land is covered by shallow water — permanently or seasonally.
Types of wetlands:
- Inland freshwater: Lakes, ponds, swamps, marshes, floodplains, rivers, bogs
- Coastal/marine: Mangroves, coral reefs, estuaries, tidal flats, salt marshes, lagoons
- Artificial/man-made: Reservoirs, paddy fields, salt pans, fish ponds, canals
Wetlands are often called the "kidneys of the landscape" — they filter water, absorb pollutants, recharge groundwater, and buffer against floods.
Why Wetlands Matter: Ecological Services
| Service | Description |
|---|---|
| Water purification | Filter pollutants, sediment, and excess nutrients from water |
| Flood regulation | Absorb and slow floodwaters; reduce flood peaks |
| Groundwater recharge | Many wetlands contribute to aquifer recharge |
| Carbon sequestration | Peatlands store ~30% of all terrestrial carbon despite covering 3% of land |
| Biodiversity habitat | Critical breeding, feeding, staging areas for migratory birds and fish |
| Livelihood support | Fishing, reeds, water supply for 1 billion+ people globally |
| Microclimate regulation | Evapotranspiration moderates local temperature and humidity |
| Cultural value | Sacred ponds, traditional fishing communities, aesthetic value |
Ramsar Convention (1971)
The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, commonly called the Ramsar Convention, was adopted in Ramsar, Iran, on February 2, 1971. It entered into force in 1975. India signed the Ramsar Convention in 1981.
February 2 is celebrated as World Wetlands Day to mark the convention's signing date.
Ramsar's Three Pillars
- Wise use of all wetlands (sustainable use)
- Designation and management of Ramsar sites
- International cooperation on transboundary wetlands
Ramsar Site Designation Criteria
A wetland qualifies for Ramsar designation under any one of 9 criteria:
- Criteria 1–3: Representativeness, rarity, or uniqueness of the wetland type
- Criteria 4–6: Bird-based criteria (supporting 20,000+ waterbirds; 1% of biogeographic population of a species; etc.)
- Criteria 7–9: Fish/aquatic species criteria, hydrology criteria
Montreux Record
The Montreux Record is a register of Ramsar sites where ecological character has changed or is likely to change due to human activities. It's essentially a list of ecologically threatened Ramsar sites.
India's Montreux Record sites:
- Keoladeo Ghana (Bharatpur) National Park, Rajasthan — due to changes in water inflow
- Loktak Lake, Manipur — due to Ithai Barrage construction affecting natural hydrology
India's Ramsar Sites: State-Wise List
India has 85 Ramsar sites as of 2024 (up from 26 in 2014 — a massive increase during 2021–2023). It has the largest number of Ramsar sites in Asia.
Major Ramsar Sites by State
| # | Ramsar Site | State | Area (ha) | Key Feature |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Chilika Lake | Odisha | 1,165,000 | Largest coastal lagoon in Asia; flamingos, Irrawaddy dolphins |
| 2 | Keoladeo Ghana NP | Rajasthan | 2,873 | UNESCO World Heritage; formerly Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary |
| 3 | Wular Lake | J&K | 189,000 | Largest freshwater lake in India |
| 4 | Sambhar Lake | Rajasthan | 240,000 | India's largest saline lake |
| 5 | Loktak Lake | Manipur | 26,600 | Floating phumdis; only floating NP (Keibul Lamjao) |
| 6 | Harike Wetland | Punjab | 4,100 | Junction of Beas and Sutlej; migratory birds |
| 7 | Kanjli Wetland | Punjab | 183 | Migratory bird habitat |
| 8 | Ropar Wetland | Punjab | 1,365 | Sutlej river wetland |
| 9 | Kolleru Lake | Andhra Pradesh | 901,000 | Freshwater lake; migratory waterfowl |
| 10 | Point Calimere | Tamil Nadu | 38,500 | Flamingos; chital deer; saline marsh |
| 11 | Bhitarkanika Mangroves | Odisha | 650,000 | Second largest mangrove forest in India |
| 12 | Deepor Beel | Assam | 4,000 | Elephant habitat; migratory birds |
| 13 | East Kolkata Wetlands | West Bengal | 12,500 | World's largest sewage-fed aquaculture system |
| 14 | Hokera Wetland | J&K | 1,375 | Kashmir Valley wetland; migratory waterfowl |
| 15 | Surinsar-Mansar Lakes | J&K | 350 | Twin lakes; Hindu pilgrimage importance |
| 16 | Tsomoriri Lake | Ladakh | 120,000 | High-altitude brackish lake; black-necked crane |
| 17 | Tsangchokh (Tso Kar) | Ladakh | 95,767 | High-altitude wetland complex |
| 18 | Renuka Wetland | Himachal Pradesh | 20 | Smallest Ramsar site in India |
| 19 | Pong Dam Lake | Himachal Pradesh | 15,662 | Bar-headed goose migration |
| 20 | Nalsarovar | Gujarat | 12,000 | Flamingos, pelicans |
| 21 | Thol | Gujarat | 6,994 | Central Asian Flyway bird staging |
| 22 | Wadhvana | Gujarat | 6,386 | Migratory birds from Siberia, Central Asia |
| 23 | Khijadia | Gujarat | 605 | Bird sanctuary; flamingos |
| 24 | Beas Conservation Reserve | Punjab | 6,407 | Gharial, river dolphin |
| 25 | Suchindram Theroor Wetland Complex | Tamil Nadu | 94 | Sacred grove wetlands |
| 26 | Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary | Tamil Nadu | 74 | Spot-billed pelican, painted stork |
| 27 | Vembanad-Kol Wetland | Kerala | 1,512,500 | Largest Ramsar site in India by area |
| 28 | Ashtamudi Wetland | Kerala | 614,000 | Estuary wetland |
| 29 | Sasthamkotta Lake | Kerala | 373 | Largest freshwater lake in Kerala |
| 30 | Mangalajodi | Odisha | Part of Chilika | Bird sanctuary |
India has 85 Ramsar sites total. The table above covers major sites. Additional sites added 2021–2023 include wetlands in Goa (Nanda Lake), Maharashtra (Lonar Lake, Nandur Madhmeshwar), Uttar Pradesh (multiple), Uttarakhand (Asan Conservation Reserve, Sur Sarovar), Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, and others.
Significant Features of Key Sites
Chilika Lake (Odisha):
- India's first Ramsar site (1981)
- Largest coastal lagoon in Asia (~1,165 km²)
- Home to rare Irrawaddy dolphins (one of the largest populations globally)
- 160+ species of birds; 14–15 lakh migratory birds in winter
- Important livelihood resource for ~200,000 fishermen
Loktak Lake (Manipur):
- The only lake in the world with floating islands called phumdis (heterogeneous masses of vegetation, soil, and organic matter)
- Keibul Lamjao National Park, located on a large phumdi, is the world's only floating national park
- Home to the critically endangered Sangai deer (brow-antlered deer)
- Seriously threatened by the Ithai Barrage (1983) which altered its natural rise-and-fall hydrology
East Kolkata Wetlands:
- A unique engineered-natural wetland system east of Kolkata
- Treats Kolkata's sewage water through ponds that grow fish and vegetables — an ancient, sustainable practice
- Supplies about 20% of Kolkata's vegetable needs and significant fish production
- A UNESCO-recognised model of sustainable resource use
- Severely threatened by real estate development
Vembanad-Kol (Kerala):
- Largest Ramsar site in India by area (~1,512,500 ha)
- A backwater lagoon system supporting the famous Kerala backwater tourism
- Site of the annual Nehru Trophy Boat Race
- Critically threatened by pollution (Kuttanad — the "rice bowl of Kerala" — sits below sea level and uses heavy agrochemicals that drain into the wetland)
Related: Biodiversity in India
Wetland Conservation Rules 2017
The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017 were notified under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. They replaced the earlier Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010.
Key Provisions
- State Wetland Authorities: Each state/UT must constitute a State Wetland Authority chaired by the state's Environment Minister
- Notified wetlands: States can recommend additional wetlands for notification to the Central Government
- Prohibited activities: Construction, landfill and land reclamation, manufacture or storage of hazardous substances, discharge of untreated sewage, industrial effluent
- Regulated activities: Activities permitted with conditions include maintaining water levels, traditional fishing and agriculture practices
- Buffer zone: Activities in buffer zones around wetlands also regulated
- Ecological sensitivity: Wetlands can be classified by ecological sensitivity
Criticism of the 2017 Rules
Conservation groups criticised the 2017 rules for weakening protections compared to 2010 rules:
- Removed the Central Wetlands Regulatory Authority (a national oversight body)
- Gave more power to state governments (which may be influenced by development interests)
- Removed specific provisions protecting all wetlands above 2.25 hectares
- Created a "permitted activities" list that environmental lawyers argued was too broad
The NGT (National Green Tribunal) has repeatedly intervened in wetland protection cases where state rules were inadequately enforced.
Threats to Indian Wetlands
| Threat | Examples | Impact |
|---|---|---|
| Encroachment and landfill | Real estate on East Kolkata Wetlands; Pallikaranai marsh in Chennai | Loss of wetland area |
| Agriculture drainage | Conversion of seasonal wetlands to paddy fields | Permanent habitat loss |
| Pollution | Sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff | Eutrophication; fish death; disease |
| Invasive species | Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) chokes water bodies; Prosopis juliflora in salt marshes | Displacement of native species; reduced water quality |
| Altered hydrology | Dams and barrages (Ithai Barrage/Loktak; hydropower in NE) | Changed seasonal flooding patterns |
| Sedimentation | Soil erosion from agriculture and construction | Shallowing of water bodies |
| Climate change | Erratic monsoon; heat stress; sea level rise | Reduced freshwater input; saline intrusion |
| Overexploitation | Over-fishing; excessive reed cutting; sand mining | Resource collapse |
India's National Wetland Atlas (Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad) estimated that India's total wetland area declined from ~15.26 million ha in 2006–07 to ~15.16 million ha in 2017–18 — a net loss of ~3% in a decade, with much greater losses in urban and agricultural fringe areas.
Conservation Initiatives
National Wetlands Conservation Programme (NWCP)
Launched in 1985–86 by MoEFCC. Provides financial and technical assistance to states for wetland conservation. Has covered 115 wetlands (not all Ramsar sites).
MISHTI (Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats and Tangible Incomes)
Launched in Budget 2023, MISHTI (Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats and Tangible Incomes) aims to plant mangroves along coastlines and tidal flats, expanding India's mangrove cover.
AMRUT Sarovar
Launched in 2022 as part of India@75 Amrit Mahotsav, the AMRUT Sarovar programme targets the construction and rejuvenation of 75 water bodies (ponds/lakes) in each district of India — totalling about 50,000 ponds nationally. Many of these overlap with traditional seasonal wetlands.
Related: Forest Conservation in India
Frequently Asked Questions
Q1. What is the Ramsar Convention and when did India join?
The Ramsar Convention (Convention on Wetlands of International Importance) is an international treaty for wetland conservation and wise use adopted in Ramsar, Iran on February 2, 1971. India signed the convention in 1981 and has since designated 85 wetlands as Ramsar sites — the largest number in Asia. February 2 is observed as World Wetlands Day. Ramsar sites are selected based on ecological significance, supporting rare species, or hosting large waterbird populations.
Q2. Which is India's largest Ramsar site?
Vembanad-Kol Wetland in Kerala is India's largest Ramsar site by area, covering approximately 1,512,500 hectares — a backwater lagoon system along Kerala's central coast. Chilika Lake in Odisha (165,000 ha) is India's largest natural lake and its first Ramsar site (1981). It's also the largest coastal lagoon in Asia, home to Irrawaddy dolphins and 160+ bird species.
Q3. What is the Montreux Record?
The Montreux Record is a register maintained under the Ramsar Convention of wetland sites where ecological character has changed, is changing, or is likely to change due to technological developments, pollution, or other human interference. India has two wetlands on the Montreux Record: Keoladeo Ghana National Park (Bharatpur, Rajasthan), due to changes in water inflow patterns, and Loktak Lake (Manipur), due to the construction of the Ithai Barrage which disrupted the lake's natural hydrology.
Q4. What are phumdis in Loktak Lake?
Phumdis are heterogeneous masses of vegetation, soil, and organic matter at various stages of decomposition that float on Loktak Lake's surface. They are unique to Loktak and are found nowhere else in the world. The largest phumdi covers approximately 40 km² and forms the base of Keibul Lamjao National Park — the world's only floating national park. Keibul Lamjao is the last natural refuge of the critically endangered brow-antlered deer (Sangai), Manipur's state animal.
Q5. What are the main threats to India's wetlands?
India's wetlands face multiple threats: encroachment and landfill (especially peri-urban wetlands for real estate); pollution from untreated sewage, industrial effluent, and agricultural runoff causing eutrophication; altered hydrology from dams and barrages disrupting natural flood-dry cycles; invasive species (water hyacinth chokes most water bodies); over-extraction of fish, reeds, and sand; and climate change through erratic monsoon and sea level rise. India lost approximately 3% of its wetland area between 2006 and 2018, with much steeper losses near cities.
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